1843-47 studies of medicine at the University of Berlin under Johannes Müller, Schönlein and Virchow; 1847 graduation with a dissertation entitled De bromo ejusque praeparatis; 1847/48 state examinations; work with F. Arlt in Prague in Vienna, Paris, London, Glasgow and Dublin; 1845 private practice as ophthalmologist in Berlin and opening of a private clinic famous for ophthalmological research and teachings; 1850 Habilitationschrift entitled Über die Wirkung der Augenmuskeln; 1854 founder and editor of the Archiv für Ophthalmologie; 1857 associate professor; 1863 foundation of the "Deutsche Ophthalmologische Gesellschaft"; 1866 Ordinarius; from 1868 onward at the ophthalmologic department of the Charité hospital.