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{"created":"2022-01-31T15:20:38.472133+00:00","id":"lit28731","links":{},"metadata":{"alternative":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory","contributors":[{"name":"Nadler, Alfred G.","role":"author"}],"detailsRefDisplay":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory 4: 1-11","fulltext":[{"file":"p0001.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"REACTION-TIME IN ABNORMAL CONDITIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\nBY\nAlfred G. Nadler, M.D.\nThe object of the present research was to'investigate the possible alterations in reaction-time and thought-time in diseased conditions of the nervous system. The experiments were performed upon individuals exhibiting symptoms diagnostic of one of four types of diseases. The subjects were patients applying at the University Clinic. The four types selected were neuritis, hysteria, locomotor ataxia and allied conditions, and alcoholism.\nThe experiments were performed on a Scripture pendulum-chrono-scope, which consists of a pendulum, a pointer, a scale, a signal and a reaction-apparatus.1 The pendulum is held at one side by a catch ; when set free, it travels across the scale. As it passes the zero point it sets in motion and carries with it the pointer ; the scale is divided into thousandths of a second, the pendulum and pointer being so arranged that one second elapses while the pointer travels from o to 1000. As it passes the zero point the pendulum springs a catch which gives the signal to the subject. This individual, all prepared, with a finger on the reaction button, presses the button in response to the signal. This locks the pointer against the scale at whatsoever point it happens to be. The experimenter has then only to read off the mark on the scale at which the pointer is set.\nFor simple reaction-time, the opening of a shutter on the signal board was the signal ; for complex reaction-time red or white cards were indiscriminately inserted behind the shutter and the subject reacted only when the red card was seen.\nThe simple reaction consisted in this case psychologically of percep- * tion and volition, physiologically of the passage of a nervous impulse from the eye to the visual center in the brain, then to the arm center and downward to the muscles of the arm and hand, The complex reactiontime adds to this the two mental processes : discrimination between the\n\u25a0Scripture, Some new apparatus, Stud. Yale Psych. Lab., 1895 III 98. The mean error of this instrument is two thousandths of a second ; the mean variations of the records are therefore psychological quantities ; see ScRirTURE, New Psychology, 142, London, 1897.\nI\nI","page":1},{"file":"p0002.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"2\nAlfred G. Nadler,\ncolors and choice between movement and rest ; the physiological side of these processes is unknown.\nIn classifying and arranging the results, the \u201cmedian\u201d was used1 instead of the average as a basis of comparison or discussion. The median is the middle value in a set of numbers; for example, if there are io or 20 members, it is the average of the fifth and sixth, or the tenth and eleventh; if there are 11 or 15 numbers, it is the sixth or the eighth one.\nLocal neuritis.\nIn this group are classed all those cases in which the nerves supplying the muscles of the forearm or hand were affected, causing a partial paralysis of either hand. It comprises neuroses of a local nature due either to trauma or toxines. In all cases, one or more branches of the brachial plexus or nerves were affected. At the seat of a local lesion of a peripheral nerve or a nerve whose branches supply the periphery, the nerve is usually inflamed, that is, swollen, infiltrated and reddened. The sheath alone may be diseased or the inflammation may affect also the internal portion, under which circumstances the infiltration is more extensive and surrounds the nerve bundles. The nerve fibres themselves may not be involved, but there is an increase of the nuclei in the sheath of Schwann. The myelin is fragmented, the nuclei of the internodal cells are swollen, and the axis cylinders present varicosities or undergo granular degeneration. The nerve fibres may be entirely destroyed and replaced by a fibrous connective tissue in which fat is deposited. In neuritis due to lead poisoning and in the more serious cases due to trauma, the changes met with in the nerves are somewhat different. This is termed parenchymatous neuritis and the changes resemble closely that described as secondary or Wallerian degeneration, which follows when a nerve is cut off from its center. There is segmentation in the myelin and breaking up of the axis cylinder, with proliferation of the nuclei of the sheath of Schwann and neurilemma. The changes may be limited to the medullary sheath, constituting what Gombault has termed peri-axial neuritis. These neuritic changes are found in segments, the affected portions being separated by healthy parts; this is the so-called \u201csegmental neuritis.\u201d In the musculo-spiral nerve, which is especially affected in lead poisoning, the parenchymatous and peri-axial neuritis are found together, the former generally being in the small branches going to\n\u25a0Scripture, On mean values for direct measurements, Stud. Yale Psych. I.ab., 1895 III I.","page":2},{"file":"p0003.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Reaction-time in abnormal conditions.\n3\nthe muscles, the latter in the main nerve trunk and larger branches. The symptoms in the following cases were pain along the arm and hand over the course of the nerve affected, several points of tenderness on the periphery, an inability to freely move the arm or forearm or hand or one or more fingers. Sometimes the flexor muscles were affected, more often the extensor. Some tactile sensation also was lost.\nTablk I. .\nSubject.\tDisease.\t\u2022S'\tds\tc\tda\nW. B.\tNeuritis due to injury\t\t... 215\t78\t353\t146\nM. Y.\tNeuritis\t\t390\t36\t5\u00b04\t66\nJ. M.\tft\t\u2022 \u25a0 \u2022 379\tl6\t557\t34\nJ. W.\tft\t\u2022 \u2022 - 379\tS3\t498\t48\nH. G.\t< t\t... 314\t9t\t44 2\t163\nL. M.\tNeuritis, alcoholic\t\t. . . 192\t39\t428\t48\nM. M.\tNeuritis\t . . .\t... 407\t35\t525\t39\nJ. W.\tNeuritis, wrist drop\t\t... 166\t22\t299\t38\nJ. W.\tAfter treatment\t\t... 143\t24\t277\t33\nA. L.\tNeuritis\t\t... 294\t6l\t478\t87\nA. I..\tAfter partial treatment\t\t... 185\t14\t487\t47\nJ. S.\tNeuritis, diseased arm\t\t... 403\t12\t640\tIO\nJ. S.\tSound arm\t\t. . . 256\t20\t423\t12\nC. W.\tNeuritis, diseased arm\t\t\t17\t5\u00b04\t14\nC. \\Y.\tSound ann\t\t\u2022 \u2022 243\t14\t392\t5\nUnit, thousandth of a second.\tI C, complex reaction-time.\nNumber of records on each subject, 40. its, itc, mean variations for the individual S, simple reaction-time.\tsubjects.\nAs would naturally be expected from such diseased conditions, the reaction-time is materially lengthened. The increase is undoubtedly due to the local lesion of the nerve. This is proven by the varying increases over the normal in the different subjects according to the extent or cause of the injury or the severity of the symptoms. It is also proven by the fact that the complex time is only so much longer than the simple reaction-time as exists ordinarily in normal conditions.\nThe mean variation, which is the index of regularity in the action of the patient\u2019s mind, is not greater than that found in healthy persons under the same conditions.\nIt was found that in patients with but one arm affected, the reactiontime was longer in the diseased arm than in the unaffected limb ; in patients experimented upon during or after treatment the results improved with improved conditions.","page":3},{"file":"p0004.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"4\nAlfred G. Nadler,\nLocomotor ataxia and multiple neuritis.\nThe diseases of this group are affections of the spinal cord due to degeneration or sclerosis of one or another tract or column.\nAlthough the results are alike in many respects, there are sufficient differences to bring out the distinction between the two diseases.\nLocomotor ataxia is an affection of the nervous system characterized clinically by incoordination with sensory and trophic disturbances and involvement of the special senses, particularly the eyes. Pathologically there is sclerosis of the posterior columns of the cord, foci of degeneration in the basal ganglia, and sometimes chronic degenerative changes in the cortex cerebri. The peripheral nerves also undergo degeneration.\nMarie asserts that the primary change is a nutritional defect of the ganglion cells of the posterior root. In this disease, there is not loss of motor power, but incoordination. The motor, efferent fibres of the peripheral nerves are intact. In ordinary peripheral neuritis, both motor and sensory fibres are diseased. The ganglion cells of the posterior spinal ganglia are destroyed in tabes, but their axis cylinder prolongations in the cord undergo degeneration and atrophy ; consequently a sclerosis occurs in the three ascending tracts, namely, Lissauer\u2019s tract, the pos-tero-external column and Goll\u2019s column.\nIn multiple neuritis the lesions and pathological conditions are practically the same as in localized neuritis, with, of course, extension to larger areas and the involvement of more nerves and portions of the cerebral and spinal ganglia.\nThe symptoms of locomotor ataxia are manifested mainly by a lack of coordination. \u25a0 The lower extremities are principally affected, causing the characteristic ataxic gait. In advanced cases the arms and hands are involved, producing numbness or tingling in the fingers.\nTable II.\nSubject.\tDisease.\ts\t. ^S\t. C\tdc\nC. M.\tI-ocomotor ataxia\t\t\t9\t869\t24\nF. H.\tti\tii\t... 374\t9\t728\t39\nF. N.\tif\ttt\t... 392\t6\t793\t15\nG. R.\tii\tit\tCo 00 Crt\t6\t767\t12\nJ. K.\tMultiple neuritis\t\t... 421\t14\t864\t16\nG. B.\ta\ta\t\t>9\t794\t42\nS. P.\tit\ta\t... 414\t72\t756\t132\nUnit, thousandth of a second.\tC, complex reaction-time.\nNumber of records on each subject, 40. dg, dc, mean variations for the individual S, simple reaction-time.\tsubjects.","page":4},{"file":"p0005.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Rcadion-time in abnormal conditions.\n5\nIn multiple neuritis, since the motor nerves are peculiarly affected, the symptoms are mainly those of paraplegia. The extensor muscles are affected more than the flexors, causing thereby wrist-drop and foot-drop and the peculiar steppage gait.\nThe simple reaction-times in these cases were markedly long, longer in those affected with multiple neuritis than in the tabetic patients. The thought-times were distinctively long also, but more so in the group of locomotor ataxia patients. The mean variations were comparatively small in all the series except in one subject.\nDo these results agree with the symptoms and pathological conditions ? And are they such as one might reasonably expect ? I think we can answer in the affirmative.\nIn the first place let us compare the simple reaction-times. The results are longer in the multiple neuritis cases in this set of experiments. This is surely in accordance with expectation. The observer has simply to react and, the motor nerves being affected, the outward current travels more slowly ; the result is a longer reaction-time. For tabetic patients the disturbance in coordination would also cause some lengthening beyond the normal time.\nIn regard to the complex reaction-time this difference between the two classes would appear scarcely sufficient to affect the complicated process.\nThe astonishing regularity of the simple reactions in locomotor ataxia, as shown by the smallness of the mean variations, remains an inexplicable fact.\nAlcoholism.\nThe patients which I have classified under the title alcoholism, for want of a better name, were men on the verge of delirium tremens.\nThey were men who had been on a \u201cbout\u201d for a varying number of days and appeared for treatment when on the border lines of consciousness. The condition is such as is seen by every one almost any day on the streets of a large city. It is a stage beyond drunkenness.\nThe patients are 'men who are immuned to alcohol and have drunk enormous quantities during their lives. They no longer become intoxicated according to the popular idea of that term. Their tissues and organs are probably saturated with the toxine. They are accustomed to drink gin and whiskey. Their condition would be, perhaps, best described as that dye to systematic intoxication.\nWhen they come for treatment their minds are clear and active ; they are acutely anxious. Being aware of the condition in which they are, they are fearful lest it become worse. They cannot sleep and are ut-","page":5},{"file":"p0006.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"6\nAlfred G. Nadler,\nterly worn out ; tremors shake their frames. The walk is shaky and weak, but not staggering. Sleep is their necessity and without medical interference sleep will not come. Unless their need is fulfilled the condition becomes rapidly worse and the patient is soon in the throes of delirium tremens.\nThe pathological condition in this affection is not accurately known, but, reasoning by analogy, one cannot be far wrong in the following description : There is in the brain a shrinking of the substance with narrow, flattened and shrunken convolutions, and serous effusion in the ventricles and subarachnoid space. Some of the vessels have degenerated and blood has oozed into the brain substance. The nerve cells and fibres are wasted throughout their course. In the cord there is increased vascularity, especially in the posterior columns. The changes in the nerve fibres are those of sclerosis or fatty degeneration.\nTable III.\nSubject.\tDisease.\tS\tds\tC\tdc\nJ. M.\tAlcoholism\t\t\t15\t479\t28\nr. m.\ttt\t... 174\t3\u00b0\t434\t60\nJ. L.\ttt\t. 164\t6\t464\t20\nF. W.\t\u00ab\t\t6\t469\tII\nI. M.\ttt\t... 163\t9\t528\t18\nJ. B.\tit\t. . . l6l\t8\t506\t12\nA. P.\ttt\t. . . 168\t9\t453\t20\nP. M.\tit\t155\t6\t443\t27\nP. M.\t(t\t\t9\t. 398\t7\nF. S.\ttt\t\tII\t416\t23\nG. W.\t\t\u2022 \u2022 - 195\t16\t507\t32\nJ. W.\tit\t. . . 1S4\t13\t394\t15\nT. L.\t\t\u2022\u2022\u2022 173\t13\t397\t8\nL. M\t\u201c\t. t\t\t. . 178\t19\t424\t29\nT. II.\tft\t... 163\t20\t415\t72\nT. H.\tAfter treatment \u2022 \u25a0\t\t\t5\t394\t22\nJ. H.\tAlcoholism\t\t... 157\t8\t499\tIO\nJ. H.\tPartially cured\t\t... 156\t6\t397\t9\nM. M.\tAlcoholism\t\t\t18\t421\t44\nM. M.\tCured of attack\t\t\t13\t397\tII\nUnit, thousandth of a second.\nNumber of records on each subject, 40. S, simple reaction-time.\nC, complex reaction-time. ds, dc, mean variations for the individual subjects.\nIn this group, strange to relate, the simple reaction-times are considerably shorter than in any series of experiments performed on healthy persons at the Yale laboratory. The complex times, however, are longer, that","page":6},{"file":"p0007.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Reaction-time in abnormal conditions.\n7\nis to say, the differences between the simple reaction-times and the complex times are larger than for the normal person. The mean variations are comparatively small in the first series, and in the latter they appear to depend upon the personal attributes of the observer.\nIn the experiments made upon the same individuals after treatment, the results showed a decrease in the reaction-times throughout, making the simple reaction-time less than in the normal and the complex time about normal. These results appear to show that the effect of the alcoholic toxine upon the individual is to heighten the power to perform simple regular movements, but that where a judgment is needed, the individual is at a disadvantage.\nHysteria.\nTo better understand the peculiar results of the experiments on hysterical subjects it may be well to begin with a brief characterization of the disease.\n\u201cHysteria is a functional disorder of the nervous system, associated with excitability and a want of will power. It is manifested by uncontrollable nervous paroxysm or crises, and intermediate states of perverted nerve function. *\t* * The symptoms vary from mere exhibitions of\nexcitability provoked by slight causes to prolonged and frecpient convulsive attacks. Paroxysms of uncontrollable laughter or crying, without apparent reason, explosions of anger or terror upon the slightest provocation, headache, sleeplessness, attacks of trembling, flushing, chilliness, choking sensations, and, above all, unreasonable actions or complaints designed to impress the spectator with the importance or wonderful character of the ailments. All sorts of vagaries resulting from a perverted imagination assist in making up a truly kaleidoscopic clinical exhibition.1 The symptoms vary from day to day. Upon being questioned regarding their trouble, the patients reply that \u201cthey are so very nervous.\u201d That statement covers the ground. In the majority of cases, the patient has exaggerated a slight trouble until it has assumed tremendous proportions in her eyes, and once having fallen into the habit she is with difficulty taught its error.\nIn this group, the reaction-times were very erratic, that being the most noticeable feature. The median for the simple reaction-time is almost normal, but the mean variation is extremely large. The complex time is increased greatly above the normal and here again the mean variation is greatly enlarged. The cause lies probably in the difficulty with which\n1 Byford, Manual of Gynecology, 137, Philadelphia, 1895.","page":7},{"file":"p0008.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"8\nAlfred G. Nadler,\nthe observers concentrated their attention. In some cases it appeared as if the patients had forgotten what they were attempting to do. Suddenly they would recollect and react, the time, of course, being greatly prolonged. This was especially true of the complex time. Or perhaps the patient would not be positive at first and would require a second thought to assure herself that the signal was read correctly.\nThe experimental results are given in the following table :\nTable IV.\nSubject.\t\tDisease.\tS\tds\tC\tdc\nH. G.\tHysteria . .\t\tO0 o \u00dbO\t91\t399\t197\nE. S.\tit\t\t... 235\t54\t742\t93\nF. F.\t\t\t\t77\t779\t123\nH. A.\tit\t\t\t27\t764\t96\nW. F.\tti\t\t. . . 186\t17\t599\t51\nJ. W.\t( <\t\t\t23\t612\t34\nP. A.\t( <\t\t. . . 198\t31\t744\t68\nC. A.\tit\t\t... 193\t20\t802\t73\nM. M.\tit\t\t... 187\t26\t749\t91\nr. h.\ti i\t\t... 187\t21\t736\t108\nM. S.\ti i\t\t... 483\t185\t641\t167\nD. A.\tit\t\t\t66\t1\t1\nUnit, thousandth of a second.\nNumber of records on each subject, 40. S,'simple reaction-time.\nC, complex reaction-time. ds, dc, mean variations for the individual subjects.\nItwas found impossible to secure any records of complex time for D. A., as she could not refrain from reacting to every fall of the shutter, regardless of the color it showed.\nSummary. 1\nIn order to compare the results for the different diseases the general \u2022average must be computed for each disease. The mean variation for \u25a0each observer serves for this purpose the same function as the mean error of a set of physical measurements. Let dv d2,\t, dk be the mean varia-\ntions for the various individuals whose averages are respectively av a2, \u2022\u2022\u2022, ak. Since each average was obtained from n experiments, the mean variations for each of the averages will be\nA=\ns/n\nA=\n1 By the editor.","page":8},{"file":"p0009.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Reaction-time in abnormal conditions.\n9\nThe weights of the averages are therefore\ni\ti\ti\n/. = \u00a3.\u2019 A \u2014 /T\u00bb\u2019 \u2014\u00bbA \u2014 tjv\nD':\nThe final average is\nA _Art. + - +AA A + A + +A\nSince the nuriiber of experiments was the same in every case, the value 11 is constant and the same result for A is obtained by using\nA - A dv-> A ^\ninstead of the formulas previously given. The final average for each disease is calculated in this way.\nIf we consider the mean variation for an individual as a measure of his uncertainty of mental action, we can inquire for the average uncertainty of the group, which for k individuals will be\nd, + dt + ... + d k\nThe average mental uncertainty is calculated for each disease.\nLastly, to complete the picture of the disease it is necessary to indicate how the individuals differ from each other in their averages. This is done by computing the statistical mean variation.\nLet A be the average for the whole group whose individual values, or averages, are av a.t, \u2014, ak ; then the individuals vary from the group-average by r, = A\u2014a,, r2 = A\u2014a2, \u2014, vk = A\u2014ak. The average variation of the individuals of the group will be\ng,+pt+-+ty\n\u201c k\nThis figure indicates the homogeneity of the group, and thus gives a characteristic of the uniformity of the disease in this particular property.\nThe calculations have been performed and verified -with the greatest care, Crelle\u2019s' and Barlow\u2019s1 2 tables being used wherever possible.\n1 Crelle, Rechentafeln, Berlin, 1857.\n* Barlow, New Mathematical Tables, London, 1814.","page":9},{"file":"p0010.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"IO\nAlfred G. Nadier,\nIn order to have a comparison with normal individuals I have added computations from the records made on 19 college students, each record consisting of ten experiments.\nCondition.\tS\tU\tV\tC\tU'\tV'\tB\tk\nLocal neuritis\t360\t42\t67\t57\u00b0\t63\t135\t210\t11\nMultiple neuritis\t418\t5\t4\t84S\t63\t54\t43\u00b0\t3\nLocomotor ataxia\t387\t8\t7\t786\t23\t42\t399\t4\nAlcoholism\t163\t13\t7\t440\t26\t48\t277\t17\nHysteria\t192\t53\tSi\t671\t100\t96\t479\t12\nNormal\t179\t29\t31\t349\t58\t5S\t170\t19\nS, simple reaction-time.\tI V, V', average departures of the indi-\nC, complex reaction-time.\tviduals from the typical averages -S' and C.\nU, U', averages of the individual mean B, difference between C and 5. variations.\tI k, number of individuals.\nThe following conclusions seem to be justified by the table :\n1.\tAlcoholism shortens the simple reaction-time, hysteria leaves it unchanged and local neuritis, multiple neuritis and locomotor ataxia lengthen it. (Column S.)\n2.\tLocal neuritis slightly lengthens the additional mental processes involved in complex reaction-time, alcoholism lengthens them considerably, while locomotor ataxia, multiple neuritis, and hysteria double and triple the normal time. (Column 2?.)\n3.. The individual\u2019s regularity is much greater than the normal in locomotor ataxia and alcoholism, and much less than normal in the other diseases. The irregularity is specially marked in hysteria for the higher mental processes. (Columns U, (7.)\n4. Subjects with multiple neuritis, locomotor ataxia and alcoholism are much more distinctly marked off in respect to these tests than normal individuals. The close agreement of the seventeen alcoholic patients in regard to simple reaction-time is very remarkable. (Columns V, V.)\nSumming up by diseases, I believe it justifiable to say that in the two respects of simple and complex reaction-time they are characterized as follows :\n1.\tLocal neuritis : a poorly defined group with long simple reactiontime and great irregularity.\n2.\tMultiple neuritis : a very closely defined group with very long time for both simple reactions and more complicated mental processes ; also considerable irregularity in the individual.\n3.\tLocomotor ataxia : a very closely defined group, slow in reaction","page":10},{"file":"p0011.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Reaction-time in abnormal conditions.\nII\nand in the higher processes, but astonishingly free from individual irregularities.\n4.\tAlcoholism : a very closely defined group with accelerated reaction-time and not generally retarded complex time, remarkably free from irregularity.\n5.\tHysteria: an indefinite group, with normal simple reaction-time but greatly lengthened complex time, exhibiting extreme irregularity.","page":11}],"identifier":"lit28731","issued":"1896","language":"en","pages":"1-11","startpages":"1","title":"Reaction-time in abnormal conditions of the nervous system","type":"Journal Article","volume":"4"},"revision":0,"updated":"2022-01-31T15:20:38.472139+00:00"}