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{"created":"2022-01-31T14:26:55.568380+00:00","id":"lit28735","links":{},"metadata":{"alternative":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory","contributors":[{"name":"Scripture, Edward W.","role":"author"}],"detailsRefDisplay":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory 4: 76-88","fulltext":[{"file":"p0076.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"NEW APPARATUS AND METHODS.\nBY\nE. W. Scripture.\nThose pieces of apparatus which have been developed for purposes of research have been in general described in connection with the investigations for which they were first used. There remain two classes of apparatus for special description. The first class is that of general utility for all purposes ; the second that for demonstration purposes. Both classes are largely the effects of the increased numbers of students, whereby it becomes necessary to provide labor-saving utility-pieces and practicable means for demonstrations on a large scale.\nLamp batteries.\nLong experience with galvanic and storage batteries of many sorts made it evident that some method must be devised by which the city current could be made available for all the battery work of the laboratory. As the Yale laboratory is supplied with the no-volt direct current, the problem was reduced to that of finding a method of readily transforming it at any point in the building to a current of lower voltage.\nA motor-dynamo, or motor-transformer, was considered. This machine is attached to the supply wires at any point ; two wires leading from it furnish the current at the particular voltage for which the machine was built. It is, however, quite costly and also inconveniently heavy. A laboratory of any size can hardly do with an equipment of less than ten batteries ; such a set of motor-dynamos would be quite beyond the reach of most institutions. A larger motor-dynamo might be used to distribute a low-voltage current throughout the laboratory by a special set of wires. This method is open to many objections ; it need not be considered when the laboratory receives the no-volt direct current, as the lamp batteries offer a better solution. When, however, an alternating current or one of very high voltage is received, the proper method would presumably be to transform it to a direct one of 25 volts and send it through the laboratory to be used from sockets by means of the appropriate lamp batteries.\nIt was suggested by Prof. A. Wright, of the Physical Laboratory, that ; a shunt arrangement might be made by means of lamps in such a manner as to yield a current of the desired amount and tension. This was tried,\n76","page":76},{"file":"p0077.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Arci\u00fc apparatus and methods.\n77\nbut owing to the lack of lamps suitable for the shunt, a coil of wire was used.1 The arrangement was fairly successful, but was finally abandoned. A study of catalogues of incandescent lamps showed that the original idea was a possible one ; thus the lamp battery was finally developed.\nThe principle of the lamp battery may be explained by describing the method of construction. A convenient form of battery is made as follows : A base-board io x 6 inches (say 25 x 15 centimeters) is sawed from a board 1 inch (2^ centimeters) thick. It is convenient to keep a supply of such bases varnished and ready for use, as an extra battery may be\nFig. 6.\nrequired at any time. Three lamp sockets (so-called \u201cwall receptacles\u201d) a snap switch and two binding-posts are then screwed to the board in the positions indicated in Figure 6. Socket A is for lamps with the same base as that used on the regular supply circuit for lighting the building ; sockets B and C are for lamps with a different base. For example, I use the T-H base for A and the Edison base for B and C. Thus it is impossible to place a lamp in the socket not intended for it. The battery is wired with the usual silk-covered lamp cord, the ends being neatly tied with thread. The method of wiring is 'sufficiently indicated in the figure. A supply of plug wires is prepared. What I call a \u201c plug wire,\u201d for lack of a better term, is made by connecting the ends of an ordinary\n1 Scriitl\u2019rk, Some neio apparatus. Stud. Yale Psych. Lab., 1895 III 109.","page":77},{"file":"p0078.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"7\u00ab\nE. IV. Scripture,\nlamp cord (6 feet, or 2 meters) to a socket plug; the other ends are scraped, bound with thread and left free.\nTo use the battery a plug wire is inserted in any lamp socket on the supply circuit. The free ends are brought to the binding-posts F, and F. A 110-volt lamp of the required amp\u00e9rage is placed in A. Thus for an electric fork a 1-amp\u00e8re lamp will be used, for a spark coil a 4-amp\u00f4re lamp, etc. A low voltage lamp of the same or greater amp\u00e9rage than the one in A is inserted in B. Thus for the electric fork the lamp must carry at least 1 amp\u00e8re in order to correspond with the lamp in A ; it may conveniently be of 10 volts. For the spark coil a lamp of 8 volts 4 amp\u00e8res would be suitable.\nA plug wire is now placed in C, and the switch D is snapped to turn the current on. At the ends of the wires from the plug in C a current can now be drawn whose maximum intensity is practically the same as that in the lamp A and whose tension is practically the same as that at the poles of the lamp B. In the case of the electric fork it would be a current of 10 volts 1 amp\u00e8re ; for the spark coil it would be 8 volts 4 amp\u00e8res.\nThe lamp battery behaves like any other battery. Increased resistance in the external current decreases the intensity of the current delivered, etc. For circuits of great resistance a lamp of higher voltage may be used in B. For larger currents than 4 amp\u00e8res the sockets at A and B are doubled, as it is not advisable to use the ordinary socket for a current of more than 4 amp\u00e8res on a no-volt circuit.\nThe character of the lamp batteries can be seen from the following tables.\nTable I.\nLamps used in the\u25a0 batteries.\n\tLarge Lamps.\t\t\tSmall Lamps.\t\t\nMark\tTrade Name.\t\tMark\tTrade Name.\t\t\non Lamp.\t\t\ton i.amp.\t\t\t\nA\tno volts\t100 c. p. 4 amp\u00e8res.\tm\t8 volts\t4\tamp\u00e8res.\nB\t110 volts\t100 c. p. 3^ amp\u00e8res.\tn\t8 volts\t4\tamp\u00e8res.\nC\tno volts\t64 c. p.\t0\t8 volts\t4\tamp\u00e8res.\nD\t110 volts\t32 c. p.\tP\t12 volts\t3\tamp\u00e8res.\nE\tno volts\t16 c. p.\tq\t12 volts\t2\tamp\u00e8res.\nF\tno volts\t8 c. p.\tr\t12 volts\tI\tamp\u00e8re.\n\t\t\ts\t12 volts\t0.7\tamp\u00e8re.\n\t\t\tt\t10 volts\tI\tamp\u00e8re.\n\t\t\tu\t6 volts\tI\tamp\u00e8re.\n\t\t\tV\t20 volts\t16\tc. p.","page":78},{"file":"p0079.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"New apparatus and methods.\t79\nTable II.\nResults of various combinations of tamps.\nI .amps used.\tAm An \u2022 Ao\tBin B11\tBo\tBv\tCm\tCn\tCo\tCp\tCq\tCv\nPotential in volts.\t9\t5\t7\t7 5\t6\t37\t4\t3\t4\t7\tIO\t25\nMax. cur. in amp.\t4.0 4.0 4.0\t3-5 3-5\t3-5\t3*5\t1.9\t1.9\t1.9\t1.9\tI*9\t1.9\nLamps used.\tDp Dq Dr Dt\tDu Dv\tEq\tEr\tEs\tEt\tEu\tKv\tFs\tFv\nPotential in volts.\t4\t5 n 30\t5\t15\t\t5\t7\t4\t2\t8\t4\t6\nMax. cur. in amp.\t1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0\t1.0 1.0\to-5\t0.5\t0.5\t0.5\t0-5\t0.5\t0.3\to-3\nAs it is sometimes desirable to distinguish the poles of the battery, the left hand wire has a red covering, while the right hand wire has a green one, and all the sockets are so placed that the central contact is connected with the red wire. For the plug wires I use a twisted red and green cord, with the red cord connected to the central contact. All sockets on the supply wires have the central contact connected with the positive wire. Thus all central contacts and all red wires are positive.\nSome of the lamp batteries are wired in a slightly different manner. The purpose of the new wiring is to render it possible to use two circuits in parallel. For example, to run a Deprez marker with a 100 v. d. electric fork, having a low resistance magnet, the fork should not be placed in series with the marker as the current running through the fork would be greatly reduced by the high resistance of the marker. The proper way is to run the wires from the battery to the marker and then","page":79},{"file":"p0080.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"8o\nE. 1V. Scripture,\nplace the fork as a shunt around the marker. Every time the fork makes contact the current pulls the prongs but is shunted from the marker because the fork offers so much less resistance, whereas at every break of contact the current is forced through the marker. Thus a large current may be used for the fork and a small one for the marker. This method of connection may be arranged with the lamp battery just as with other batteries, but a further improvement may be made. A fourth socket, G, is placed in series with the socket for the small lamp, as shown in Figure 7. The lamps are arranged as before ; the plug wire from C is connected with the fork and another plug wire from G with the marker. The battery runs the fork as usual. Every contact of the fork shunts the current from B and G ; every break of the fork, however, forces the current at a tension of 11 o volts through the marker. The advantage of this arrangement is frequently very great. This form of battery may be conveniently termed the \u201c extra circuit battery.\u201d By closing G with a metal plug the battery may be changed to the same system as Figure 6.\nTo save time and space I mount several lamp batteries on a single board and fasten it on the wall where it is likely to be used. Figure 8 shows such a battery board placed over the drum-table in the time-room. The switch at the top turns off the current completely ; the socket in the middle gives direct access to the no-volt supply, e. g., for running a motor. From the fuse block at the bottom the wires divide to the four batteries, each battery having its separate switch. Two of the batteries are wired by the method shown in Figure 6. The first and third, counting from the left, are wired after Figure 7 ; the plugs for closing\nthe extra sockets hang at the sides when not in use. The extra switch introduced in the latter batteries enables further changes, but the arrangement is too complicated for ordinary use. The cost of a lamp battery is much less than that of a corresponding galvanic battery ; the expense of running it on the city circuit is trifling ; the only renewals are those of the lamp when it is burned out ; a new battery can be made in ten minutes ; the saving of time formerly required for setting up or replenishing batteries is worthy of consideration.\nMultiple key.\nThe multiple key described in the first number of these Studies (pp.\nFig. 8.","page":80},{"file":"p0081.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"New apparatus and methods.\nSi\n10, 97) has undergone further improvement. In addition to changes in execution such as greater lightness of the parts and fineness of workmanship, the following important alterations have been made. 1. Another break contact has been added to the rear end of the lower lever ; thus two circuits can be broken simultaneously by pressure on the key, with or without closing one or two other circuits at the same movement. This double break is not only very useful on many occasions, but is sometimes indispensable. 2. The point which dips into the mercury cup has been made adjustable. 3. The main contacts are independent ; this re-\nFig. 19.\nquires twelve binding posts. 4. All connections are made on top so as to be directly visible. The system of connection can be seen in Figure 19. The wire from the further post on the front of the key leads to the mercury cup which is hidden by the third post from the left in front in the figure.\nIn this connection it may be well to mention that, when this key (or any other key) is used with the spark coil, the condenser should be connected around the place where the circuit is broken. The spark coil should have a separable condenser. When a coil is to be bought, it may be ordered to be built in three separate pieces ; the primary coil, the secondary coil and the condenser. The condenser can then be used anywhere. The independent primary is useful for teaching the construction and use of the spark coil. The magnetic interrupter is not needed ; by omitting it separable the form of the spark coil becomes cheaper than the usual one.\n\u2022 Adjustable support for recording instruments.\nFor the convenient adjustment of forks and markers so that they may write properly on the revolving drum I have devised the support shown in Figure 10.\n6","page":81},{"file":"p0082.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"82\nF. JV. Scripture,\nThe horizontal rod is fastened in any desired position to the upright rod of the drum-carriage by means of the clamp M with the screws A and B. The horizontal rod T runs through the hollow rod P. At its end is a screw-thread on which the nut F is placed. The nut F is so adjusted that the hollow rod P plays freely but without shake around the horizontal rod. The jamb-screw E locks A\" in position. The upper arm Q\n\nwith the screw N is fast to the horizontal rod, and the arm O to the hollow rod P. The arm O is held against the screw N by a spring.\nIf a fork is to be used, a hole is bored in the wooden base ; it is then placed on R and screwed tightly down by means of A. The fork is then brought into rough adjustment and fastened by I on the rod P. If a marker is used, it is placed directly on P.\nThe finer adjustment is done by the screw yV which slowly moves the arm O and lowers or raises the fork. Pressure of the finger on O lifts the recording point at once from the paper. A view of a fork applied to the drum in this way is to be seen in my New Psychology, Figure 6.\nThe clamp M may be of brass or hard rubber, the latter being neces- \u25a0 sary when the spark method is used in combination with a marker. (See p. 117 below.)\nSystem of projection.\nAlthough the requirements of psychology in the matter of projection are in some respects similar to those of other sciences, there are certain important peculiarities that must be borne in mind in providing lanterns, screens, etc. For single, plain slides, the equipment may be the usual one","page":82},{"file":"p0083.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"New apparatus ami methods.\n83\nwith an ordinary lantern, and for projection of apparatus the open-work lantern may be used as in physics. Yet these methods leave untouched the subjects of color and binocular vision, which are specifically psychological and which require lantern-work when presented to large classes.\nIn the following account I shall describe the system which I have developed at Yale.\nTriple lantern.\u2014The projection in colors requires a triple lantern of special construction. For stereoscopic projection two of the parts and for plain projection one or two or three parts are used.\nThe triple lantern which we possess is shown in Figure 11. It is arranged for lime-light, as the color work cannot be done with electric or acetylene light. The three jets are packed closely into one lantern-body. The three condensers are as close together as possible. Three lenses exactly alike are mounted on the front board. The jets have all adjust-\nFio. 11.\nments for regulating the gas, manipulating the lime, etc. Limes turned in the lathe are used in order not to disturb the focus as they are rotated in the lantern. Regulators are placed on the cylinders.\nTo mount the lantern a shelf 0(1% inch (4 centimeters) pine is built out from the wall and rigidly supported ; every precaution is taken to prevent warping. A plate of thick wood or of iron is then prepared just large enough to form a base for the lantern. The lantern is screwed","page":83},{"file":"p0084.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"84\nE. JF. Scripture,\nto this plate. The proper position for the lantern is found ; the plate is made perfectly level and is then either screwed to the shelf or is so marked that it can always be brought readily to its proper position. The screen is put in place and the three lenses are brought into perfect registration.\nApparatus lantern.\u2014A regular open-work lantern may be used, but I find it preferable to build one in the following way. A pine board four feet (i'/x meter) long and nine inches (23 centimeters) wide serves as the base. Across it at about one foot (30 centimeters) from the end there is an upright board one foot (30 centimeters) high supported on a narrow base. An opening is made toward the top of this board to admit the condenser-lens. The projecting lens is held by another upright board supported on a base and not attached to the horizontal board. The light, which may be one of the jets from the triple lantern, is held by a rod on a free metal base which is placed at the desired point behind the condenser. One of the condensers of the triple lantern may be readily re-moved and used in this lantern. The projecting lens may be a very simple one. The large open base and the free adjustment of all the parts make the arrangement of apparatus very easy.\nScreens.\u2014Where the room is very high, it is desirable to have the pictures back of the lecture room table. In this case only one screen would be needed ; a silvered screen of the appropriate size. When the room is not so high, the silvered screen is placed on rollers just above the front edge of the experiment table ; for projections where part of the apparatus is used on the table and part is projected by the lantern an- ; other screen is used back of the table. For this latter screen I use muslin sheeting long enough to reach entirely across the room. It is supported by rings on a tightly stretched cord and is readily drawn across or pulled back by other cords. ' The use of so wide a screen enables me to project two views simultaneously side by side.\nThe silvered screen is required for stereoscopic work by polarized light ; moreover, it is far more brilliant than any white screen.\nSingle views.\u2014For single views two of the lanterns of the triplet may be used for dissolving. A lantern view is more effective than a chart for various reasons : it is .not exposed until it is wanted ; it is brilliantly lighted while all else is dark ; it must be strictly attended to because it will speedily disappear. Views of apparatus should also be used wherever possible. The actual piece of apparatus is so small that the details are invisible to distant students ; a lantern view of the whole or of some essential part greatly aids the understanding. I also find that even the most striking and brilliant instruments rarely command the same attention as a lantern view.","page":84},{"file":"p0085.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"jVe7C apparatus and methods.\n85\nApparatus views.\u2014For apparatus projection several methods may be followed. Whenever possible, I place as much of the apparatus as I can in full view on the experiment table ; the registering part is then placed in the apparatus lantern and projected to one side of the screen behind the table, while the recording point is prolonged so as to write on a smoked glass plate in one part of the triple lantern which projects the record beside the view of the recording apparatus. When this cannot be done, one or two lanterns may be used as desired.\nStereoscopic vinos.\u2014For stereoscopic projection two methods may be used.\nBy the color method sheets of red and green gelatine (for lime light) or glass (for electric light) are placed before the condensers of two of the lanterns. Small squares of red and green glass are held before the left and right eyes respectively. The gelatines and the glasses require careful selection. An ordinary white screen may be used.\nWith the other method two polarizers are placed in front of two of the lanterns with the axes of polarization at right angles.1 The stereoscopic view-slides are projected simultaneously to the same place. Each student receives an eye-glass consisting of two analyzers with axes of polarization at right angles to each other. The views are thus received by the eyes separately and the result is an object apparently in full solidity. The whole subject of binocular vision lends itself to treatment by this method. Series of stereoscopic slides have been specially prepared for this purpose.\nColor views.\u2014For color projection three colored films, red, green, and blue, are placed in the triple lantern. I have devised a slide which shows on the screen the elementary colors singly with their combinations in pairs and in triple. Shades are shown by slowly turning the light down. The various hues and the laws of combination are illustrated by varying the intensities of the jets. The properties of the color triangle and the color pyramid are thus illustrated. When the laws of color are thoroughly impressed by this method, slides of concrete objects are used for study. Thus a group of flowers, Figure 12, affords an illustration of the automatic solution of color equations. The matter is quite complex, but a few illustrations will serve to show how I approach the subject. Every color is the sum of three elements, or i=x + y + 2. Assume for these elements the three colors red, green, and blue, and let x indicate the number of units of red, y of green, and a of blue. For white we have ecpial parts of the three elements, or x=y = z. The middle stalk of flowers in each slide allows the light to pass fully through it, as can be\n1 A view of these polarizers adjusted to a biunial lantern is shown in Scrii\u2019TURE, New Psychology, Fig. 113, London, 1897.","page":85},{"file":"p0086.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"86\nJi. I V. Scripture,\nseen when the views are shown singly. When all three are projected together, it will receive equal illumination from each, and will consequently be white. The stalk on the left in the R slide allows the red light to\npass, but keeps it entirely back on the G and B slides, consequently we have j = o and z\u2014 o and i=x; that is, the stalk appears red in the final picture. In this manner the greens, blues, yellows, purples, etc., with their various hues, tints, and shades may be worked out.\n\u201cThe phenomena of color blindness can also be represented with the tricolor lantern. The usual theory of color blindness, accord ing to which the defect arose by the failure of one of the three fundamental colors, can be illustrated by covering up one of the lenses. For red blindness the red lens is covered, and the resulting picture appears in combinations of green and blue ; for green blindness the green lens is covered and for the hypothetical blue blindness the blue one is covered. To illustrate the newer theory, the blue slide is left unchanged, but two slides are made for red and two for green. For the dichroniats of the first class \u2014the red-blue persons\u2014the two slides taken through the red ray fdter are placed in the red and green lanterns. Thus, in the case of the gladiolus, the slide R is thrown on the screen in red light from one lantern, and also in green light from the second lantern, while the B slide is thrown in blue as usual. The G slide is not used. The result is a picture in combinations of yellow and blue. For the other dichroniats\u2014the green-blue persons\u2014the G slide is thrown in red light, and again in green light, while the blue remains the same. The R slide is not used. The result is also a picture in combinations of yellow and blue, but each particular combination differs from that in the previous","page":86},{"file":"p0087.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"New apparatus and methods.\n87\ncases. To illustrate monochromasy one lantern alone is used, the color being left to an arbitrary choice.\u201d\nThe method also furnishes a remarkable analogy to the decomposition of the colors by the eye into three fundamentals and their mental recomposition into sensations of color. The tricolor views are taken by a camera used three times in succession with a differently colored screen each time. The red rays impress one of the plates, the green rays the second and the blue rays the third. The three negatives differ in their shading. Three positives are made which differ likewise, as in Figure 12. The three positives produce views appropriately shaded when projected on the screen by the colored lights. The result is a recomposition in natural colors. The approximation to the original colors is close if the slides are properly made and manipulated.\nSlidk making.\nThe constant use of lantern views for instruction renders it necessary to provide an equipment for the making of slides at a minimum expense of time. The system which I shall describe was developed expressly for the rapid production of slides for class-room work and of photographs for illustrating books.\nThe photographic section of the Yale laboratory is located directly under the roof and receives light from a skylight. For work at night the objects to be photographed may be illuminated by burning pieces of magnesium tape. This luminant is used instead of electric light or lime light, because the number of photographs taken at night has been too small to render a regular installation profitable.\nFor photographing apparatus a table on rollers is provided. White, gray and black backgrounds and table covers are provided to fit on the top of the table. A cover is placed on the table, backgrounds and side-pieces are arranged and the apparatus is placed in the compartment thus formed. The table is then moved until the appropriate lighting is obtained. The choice of white, gray or black for the walls of the compartment is not always an easy matter unless one has had considerable experience with the reflecting qualities of the metals ; white is, however, generally used. The strong reflections on polished metal produce sharp streaks of black and white. I find it generally preferable to photograph nickeled or burnished pieces after they have been in use and have slightly lost their polish.\nFor reproducing drawings, photographs and pictures in books the camera is mounted on a heavy block moving on rails ; it may be raised, tipped sidewise or rotated at will. Loose pictures are tacked to a board","page":87},{"file":"p0088.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"88\nE. IF. Scripture.\nat the end of the rails ; books are placed on blocks and held open against the board by a rubber band. The adjustment of the camera can be rapidly performed.\nWhen the blocks used to illustrate books are at hand, slides can be printed directly from them.1 It is best to have the work done by the glass-printer in a clock factory. The metal portion of the cut is mounted on a board of a thickness suited to the particular frame used in the printing. It is inked with a fine ink (e. g., a $2 cut or extra job ink), tempered to the proper consistency with Calcutta boiled oil and Japan drier. The precise degree of temper depends on temperature, humidity, and other conditions. Th\u00e9 inking is done by a simple hand roller of the kind used in ordinary printing. The block lies face upward on the table and the piece of plain glass is placed at the appropriate distance on a level with it. A composition roller of glue and molasses, made a trifle harder than the regular printer\u2019s roller, is then run forward on two guides. As it passes over the block it takes the impression. On reaching the glass, after one complete revolution, it transfers the ink impression directly to it. I do not think it possible to run this roller evenly enough without the guides ; at any rate, it would not pay to waste time in trying it.\nThe result is a print on the glass just as if on paper. Curiously enough, the prints on the glass are superior to those on paper from the same block. The positives are then finished up as lantern slides in the usual way.\n1 Scripture, A new method of making lantern slides, Scientific American, 1895 I.XXIII 123.","page":88}],"identifier":"lit28735","issued":"1896","language":"en","pages":"76-88","startpages":"76","title":"New apparatus and methods","type":"Journal Article","volume":"4"},"revision":0,"updated":"2022-01-31T14:26:55.568386+00:00"}