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{"created":"2022-01-31T15:22:40.519282+00:00","id":"lit28750","links":{},"metadata":{"alternative":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory","contributors":[{"name":"Scripture, Edward W.","role":"author"}],"detailsRefDisplay":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory 10: 49-80","fulltext":[{"file":"p0049.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"RESEARCHES IN EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS\n(Second Series')\nBY\nE. W. Scripture.\nThese researches are a continuation of the first series, published in these Studies.1\nI. Apparatus for studying speech records.\nThe apparatus for transcribing gramophone records2 has been so developed that the curves are much larger ; those shown in Plates I to XI are reproduced directly by photography without any magnification.\nThe tracing apparatus in the form used for transcribing the records reproduced in these plates is partly shown in a top view in Fig. i and in a side view in Fig. 2. The gramophone plate E (Fig. 1) is placed on a metal disc (Fig. 2) which is rotated about once in five hours by miter gears connected to the screw barrel in the tube C (Fig. 1). This tube is turned by a spur gear Y which is moved by a speed reducing mechanism from an electric motor. As C revolves, it turns the screw barrel and the gramophone plate ; at the same time the screw barrel moves longitudinally through a nut and pushes the plate to the left. The iron plate D forms the base of the apparatus. A steel point near F in the lever J, held by the adjustable support H on the base I, runs in the speech groove on the gramophone plate. The lever / thus repeats the horizontal vibrations in the speech groove. The movements are transferred to the second lever Q, working on a fulcrum O supported by P, by means of the link and gimbal joints Z, N. The movements of Q are registered by a point R on a band of smoked paper S stretched between two drums, of which one is shown at T. The drum T is moved . by a belt from the pulley X. The speed of the gramophone plate and that of the drum are thus always in a constant ratio.\nThe magnification of the vibrations in the speech groove can be of any degree, provided the mechanical working is sufficiently accurate. The following technical points were learned from long and costly experience.\n1\tScripture, Researches in experimental phonetics [first series'), 1899 VII 1.\n2\tScripture, as before, 10.\n49","page":49},{"file":"p0050.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"E. W. Scripture,\n5\u00b0\na\nFig. I","page":50},{"file":"p0051.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\nThe bearings for the levers / and Q must be perfectly tight and yet perfectly loose ; the slightest bind or play destroys the records. To attain this condition all the pivot bearings are made of steel highly polished under a magnifying glass. All parts are made with the utmost lightness and rigidity.\nThe arms /and Q are of a reed specially imported from Japan ; I have been unable to find any other substance that will give equal rigidity with so little weight. The link LNis a small reed from Germany used for marking instruments ; it has great longitudinal strength, that being all that is required in the application.\nThe recording point R was sometimes of steel in an aluminum holder (as shown in the figure) or was what is known as the Baylis recording point. This\nlatter tracing point is worthy of _\ta description. I made my speci-\nmens at a suggestion from a jrIG\tmedical man ; as I have never\nseen the original account, I cannot tell how widely they may differ. The construction of the point is shown in Fig. 3. A piece of thin card is cut into two portions, and the two are united by the thinnest obtainable rubber membrane (I use some obtained from Kcenig, of Paris, for manometric flame capsules) ;\nFig. 2.\nFig. 4.\nthis forms an exceedingly delicate hinge. A fine glass thread is made ; a piece is broken off ; one end is melted to a little ball ; and the piece is cemented to the free piece of cardboard. The other piece is attached to","page":51},{"file":"p0052.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"52\nE. IV. Scripture,\nthe recording arm. The weight of the free piece keeps the point on the paper ; the hinge allows the necessary play.\nIn order to use long bands of paper the recording drums must be conveniently arranged. One arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Two plates DE are held together by crossrods. At any points on the edges of these plates metal, shafts may be clamped, and two drums A B, with hollow axles, placed on them. A band of paper CC is fastened evenly around the drums and tightened after the paste is dry by adjusting one of\nFig. 5.\nthe shafts ; it is then smoked as usual. To rotate the drums a loose pulley may be placed on one of the shafts before or after the drum is on the support ; this pulley has a pin that catches one of the spokes of the drum.\nThe accuracy with which the machine reproduces the vibrations in the groove on the gramophone plate may be shown by a comparison of repeated tracings of the same curve ; the pieces in Fig. 5 were cut from different tracings and were reproduced directly by photography. The tracing is thus done with an accuracy indicated by the likeness of the two records. These differences are so small as to escape anything but\nmicroscopic measurement. The fine vibrations in the consonants and some of the vowels, which are lost in the tracing, are smaller than these |b\tc\tdifferences.\nAs this machine can be run continuously day and night with no supervision except for changing the paper, great quantities of tracings can be accumulated in spite of the low\nFig. 6.\tsPeed-\nThe problem of reducing the speed\nof an electric motor to any degree I have solved in the following general\nway :\nC\n\u00a5","page":52},{"file":"p0053.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n53\nFig. 7.\nAn adjustable countershaft fastened to the base of the motor allows the speed to be reduced in transmission. For very high speeds the belt from a pulley on the drum runs directly to a small pulley on the motor axle. For more moderate speeds the countershaft is used with a spur gear A on the motor axle and another B on the countershaft (Fig. 6) ; the pulley C on the countershaft runs at a low'er speed on account of the reduction AB. For very low speeds a worm W is placed on the motor axle and a worm gear F on a spur gear on the countershaft (Fig. 7). When the drum is used with its axis horizontal, a spur gear\nS (Fig. 8) may, if preferred, be placed on its axle and made to connect with a spur gear T of any desired size on the countershaft, which is run by a worm W on the motor axle. For very low speeds the spur gear .S\u2019 (Fig. 9) is run by a worm X on the countershaft, which is turned by the worm gear V in connection with the worm W on the motor axle. A collection of various sizes of pulleys and gears makes it possible to get almost any speed desired ; the finer gradations are accomplished by resistances and by slightly pressing or loosening the motor brushes against the commutator.\nFor reproducing the tracings the following procedure has been found successful : A narrow strip containing the curve is cut from the smoked paper. This strip is then placed so that it reads from right to left.\nA piece the length of the desired plate is cut off and pasted on pasteboard. Below this another length is pasted ; and so forth until the plate is of the desired height. The edges and open spaces are then blackened. The engraver uses\nthis as copy for making the block, but omits the process of stripping (or reversing). The print from the block thus made will read from left to right. The omission of the stripping avoids the errors due to stretching of the gelatine.\nII. Interpretation of speech curves.\nA curve of speech is at first sight no more intelligible than a line of Chinese ideograms. The knowledge of the speech sounds to which a","page":53},{"file":"p0054.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"54\nE. W. Scripture,\ncertain portion of a curve belongs gives the general meaning of the curve but affords little information concerning its details. A careful study of the sound by the ear reveals some of the grosser characters of the sound, but cannot indicate any of the finer details that lie before the eye in the complexities of the curve. The meaning of these details\u2014the very essentials of the speech sounds\u2014is not apparent at first observation ; only by patient and persistent unraveling of the tangled curve is an inkling of it obtained.\nThe experience of several years has developed a method of studying the tracings from the gramophone (or zonophone) discs that aims to save some of the great amount of time involved.\nThe words spoken by the gramophone plate are noted on paper with an indication of the relative lengths of the pauses. The pauses are classed as short, medium and long.\nThe first vibrations on the record are taken as representing the first word on the plate. The first long straight line on the record is taken as the first pause. Then the successive sounds between the beginning and the first pause are assigned to the successive groups of vibrations. This method is followed for succeeding groups of sounds between pauses.\nConsiderable help is obtained by a familiarity with the peculiarities of speech curves.\nA set of speech curves (Plate I) from the Cock Robin record will be used to illustrate the first steps taken in analysis. The curve reads from left to right; the italicized letters indicate the sounds recorded.1 The speech curves in the figure would naturally run along horizontal lines. The slow fluctuations seen in the records are due to irregularities in feeding the gramophone plate sidewise. They in no way affect the accuracy of the records. In making measurements of duration, however, the ruler should always be horizontal.\nTo interpret the details of a sound the grouping of the vibrations is first noticed. In a series of groups of the same general form each group may usually be considered as arising from one puff of the vocal cords. The minor vibrations arise from the vibrations of the resonating cavities and from the overtones of the cords.\nMany of the main features of the speech curves can be obtained by inspection without measurement ; very much more can be obtained by simple measurements. Long distances may be measured by millimeter scales ; the tenths of a millimeter may be estimated by the eye. Finer measurements may be made with a scale graduated in tenths of a milli-\n1 This account is from Scripture, Speech curves, /, Mod. Lang. Notes, 1901 XVI 71.","page":54},{"file":"p0055.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n55\nmeter;1 the work is done with a watchmaker\u2019s eyeglass, or under a magnifying glass. When the curves are very small, the measuring may be done by a microscope with a micrometer object-table or a micrometer eye-piece.2\nThe calculations are all done by books of tables3 4 or with a slide rule.* The investigator should become familiar with various books containing extensive multiplication tables, tables of reciprocals, etc. A Chinese abacus is also very convenient in adding.\nThe speech curves are frequently of such a nature that the period of the cord tone may be found by measuring the distance between two like points in two successive groups of vibrations.\nThe distance in millimeters is translated into time according to the equation valid for the tracing. For all the curves in Plate I except that of \"draw your\u201d the relation is imm=o.0016s ; for this curve it is imm= 0.0007s. Thus, the distance between the two high points in the last vibration in the fourth line is 3.2mm; at imm for 0.0016s (use Zimmer-mann\u2019s table for 16) this gives a period of 0.01536s for the cord vibrations at that instant. A period of 0.01536s is the same as a frequency of i -h 0.01536 (use Barlow for reciprocals) or 65.1.\nTo illustrate the method a detailed analysis of the words \u201c saw him \u201d will be given in the next section.\nIII. Further studies of Cock Robin.\nThe Cock Robin record previously described5 was traced off again with the apparatus shown in Fig. 1. The curves were much larger than the previous ones. Those in Plates I and II are reproduced directly by zinc etching (p. 53) with no enlargement.\n1\tFor measuring rules : Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 genevoise, Gen\u00e8ve (especially adapted is a \u2018petite \u00e9chelle en argentan divis\u00e9e d\u2019un c\u00f4t\u00e9 en dixi\u00e8mes de millim\u00e8tres\u2019 for 20 francs).\n2\tFor microscopes with micrometer eye-pieces : Zeiss, Jena ; Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y. For micrometer object tables : Zimmermann, Leipzig.\n3\tFor mathematical tables: Crelle, Rechentafeln, Berlin, 1857 (first English edition, New York, 1888) ; Zimmermann, Rechentafeln, Berlin, 1891 ; Barlow, Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals of all Integer Numbers up to 10000, reprint edition, London, 1897.\n4\tFor slide rules and similar calculating instruments : Dennert & Pape, Altona ; W. F. Stanley, London ; Beyerlen & Co., Stuttgart ; Tavernier-Gravet, Paris ; Keuffel & Esser, New York. For adding machines : Felt & Tarrant, New York City. For calculating machines (most advantageous for multiplication and division) : Burkhardt, Glash\u00fctte i/S.; Br\u00fcckner, Dresden; Grimme, Natalis & Cie., Braunschweig. For the curve-adder : Coradi, Z\u00fcrich.\n5\tSCRIPTURE, Researches in experimental phonetics (first senes), Stud. Yale Psych. Lab., 1899 VII 14.","page":55},{"file":"p0056.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"56\nE. W. Scripture,\nThe first line on the Plate1 contains the record of ohim in schim which occurs in the phrase \u201cWho saw him die? \u201d The words are run together in speech on the gramophone, so that there is no pause between 2 and h. 2\nThe record shows no trace of the s. The first vibrations of the curve differ from the rest, and show changing relations between the resonance (or mouth) tone and the cord tone; they indicate that the cords have begun to vibrate while the mouth is still changing from the r position to the } position. After this the grouping of the vibrations in threes indicates a cord tone with a cavity tone a duodecime higher ; this general relation is maintained throughout the vowel. That still other cavity tones are present is indicated by the subordinate modifications of the small vibrations. The sound j increases slowly in intensity, but diminishes again as it changes into the following sound. The i is quite strong but falls quickly as the sound changes to m. The m vibrations slowly fade away.\nThe accompanying table shows the way in which the course of the cord tone in reference to pitch is calculated. It illustrates several important principles used in computing and interpreting results.\nThe figures in column A give the distances in millimeters from apex to apex of the strongest vibrations in the successive groups. The measurements were made by an assistant who did not know the nature of the problem investigated. It is very important to note the following :\n1.\tThe determination of the exact point to be called the apex may be indefinite to the extent of one or two tenths of a millimeter, owing (a) to the roundness of the apex, (,b) to the fact that the apex is sometimes slightly displaced by interfering cavity tones.\n2.\tThe general character of muscular action forces us to assume that the changes in the voice proceed with some regularity ; this would indicate that the unusual figure 2.6 for the sixth period does not give the proper period at that point but shows something else.\nUsing Zimmermann\u2019s table for 16, the figures in column A are turned into time by the equation i\"\u2019m = 0.00165, with the results given in column\n'This Plate and much of the analysis were first published in Scripture, Speech curves, /, Mod. Lang. Notes, 1901 XVI 72.\n* The system of phonetic notation is that used in Scripture, Elements of Experimental Phonetics, New York 1902.","page":56},{"file":"p0057.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n57\nA\nB\nC\tA\tB\tC\nPeriod in milli-\tPeriod in seconds.\tFrequency.\nmeters.\t\t\n3-8\t0.0061\t167\n3-8\t0.0061\t167\n3-9\t0.0062\t161\n4.0\t0.0064\t156\n4.0\t0.0064\t156\n2.6\t\t\n4.2\t0.0067\t149\n4.2\t0.0067\t149\n4-i\t0.0066\t152\n4.0\t0.0064\t156\n4.2\t0.0067\t149\n4-3\t0.0069\t145\n4-3\t0.0069\t145\n4-2\t0.0067\t149\n4-3\t0.0069\t145\n4-3\t0.0069\t145\n4-3\t0.0069\t145\n4.1\t0.0066\t152\n4.2\t0.0067\t149\n4-3\t0.0069\t145\n4-5\t0.0072\t139\n4-5\t0.0072\t139\n4-5\t0.0072\t139\niod in millimeters.\tPeriod in seconds.\tFrequency.\n4.8\tO.OO77\t130\n5-o\t0.0080\t125\n5-i\t0.0082\t122\n5-o\t0.0080\t125\n5-i\t0.0082\t122\n5-2\t0.0083\t120\n51\t0.0082\t122\n4-7\t0.0075\t133\n4.6\t0.0074\t135\n4-7\t0.0075\t133\n4.8\t0.0077\t130\n4-7\t0.0075\t133\n4.4\t0.0070\t143\n4-5\t0.0072\t139\n4-5\tO.OO72\t139\n4-5\tO.OO72\t139\n4-7\tO.OO75\t133\n4-5\tO.OO72\t139\n4-7\tO.CO75\t133\n4-5\t0.0072\t139\n4.6\tO.OO74\t135\n4-4\t0.0070\t143\n4.6\tO.O074\t135\nB. These are the lengths of successive periods in the cord tone. Using a table of reciprocals (Barlow or Zimmermann) these are turned into frequencies by the equation C\u2014 i/B, with the results given in column C.\nThe curve of frequency is now to be plotted. This is best done by supposing the speech curve to be laid off along the horizontal or X axis, so that the first vibration is at zero. Above zero the proper number of millimeters is counted upward to indicate the frequency of the cord tone at the start. Thus, if the period of the first group is 0.12s, the frequency will be 83 ; if ioomm have been assigned to each 100 of frequency, the dot will be placed at 83ram above the X axis. Above the point on the X axis at which the second group of vibrations would begin if the curve were laid upon it, the frequency of the cord tone at this moment is indicated by a dot at the proper height. In this manner a series of dots is obtained, indicating the frequency of the cord tone at a succession of moments. (Plate XIV, Fig. 1.)","page":57},{"file":"p0058.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"58\nE. IV. Scripture,\nIn the diagram of frequency the successive dots might be connected by straight lines. We probably come nearer to the true curve of frequency by drawing a smooth curve that evenly distributes the dots on either side. This may be done with the free hand, by means of draughtsman\u2019s curves, or by a flexible rubber ruler ; the more general reasons for this procedure may be found in works on the methods of science.1 2 The curve of frequency of }hi, plotted from the table on p. 57, is shown in Plate XIV, Fig. 1.\nThe curious interruption of the regular course of figures in the table by 2.6 arises from the fact that the series of the strongest vibrations used to mark off the groups is replaced at this point by a series arising from one of the weaker vibrations. In the first part of the curve there is some vibration of a changing character that causes a change in the moment of strongest vibration. The unusual figure indicates this latter fact and not any sudden break in the cord tone. A similar occurrence may be seen in 0 of \u201c bow \u201d at the middle of line 2 (Plate I) and in 3 of \u201c draw \u201d as indicated below.\nThe periods of the smaller, or cavity, vibrations can frequently be obtained by direct measurement. This occurs most readily when these vibrations are of a simple form or of a pitch much higher than the cord tone. The result becomes more accurate when several successive cavity vibrations can be measured together. When the cavity vibrations are simple in form and a place in the curve can be found where a number of them exactly fill out a group period, the length of the group period divided by the number of vibrations will give the length of the cavity period.\nNo detailed study of the specific sounds will be undertaken on the present occasion ; this will be done in the near future, as soon as the enormous labor of analyzing the similar sounds of several speakers has been completed. One sound, however, calls for special attention, namely, the sonant h.\nA faint h is distinctly heard between 0 and i in \u201csaw him\u201d ; the observation has been verified by several listeners. There is no interruption of the vibrations between the two vowels, but a slight weakening occurs near the middle of the record. The h is thus a sonant one. Other cases are to be found in \u201csaw him\u201d of Plate II and \u201chad\u201d of Plate VII. Pipping1 records a similar case in a record of Finnish \u201c keih\u00e4it\u00e4. \u201d\n1\tJevons, Principles of Science, Chap. XXII.\n2\tPipping, Zur Phonetik d. finn. Sprache, Unters, mit Hensen\u2019s Sprachzeichner, M\u00e9m. de la Soc. finno-ougrienne, XIV, Helsingfors 1899.","page":58},{"file":"p0059.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experbnentalphonetics.\n59\nSonant h was regularly prescribed by the Sanskrit grammarians.1 It is used in some modern languages.2\nThe curves of the vowel sounds of the word \u201cbow,\u201d of the phrase \u201c with my bow and arrow,\u201d are shown in the second and third lines of the Plate. To the ear the word appears melodious and prolonged ; it might even be called mellifluous.\nThe tracing begins with three faint vibrations that presumably occur as the mouth begins to open after the occlusion for h. Thereafter the vibrations follow in groups of four, beginning with a length of 5.5\u201d\u201c\" and decreasing slowly to 4.8\u201c\u2122 in the middle of the line; this indicates a cord tone of rising pitch. The cavity tone remains practically constant at i.5mm per vibration, or a period of 0.0024s, or a frequency of 417.\nThe amplitude rises steadily to a degree that indicates considerable loudness ; it then falls rather suddenly (middle of second line in Plate I). The vibrations beyond this point show so many peculiarities that their difficulties can best be attacked by working backward from a later point where the grouping is more regular. Somewhat beyond the middle of the second line in Plate I the vibrations fall into groups having two main crests with two subordinate ones. This entire group arises presumably from one cord vibration. This conclusion is drawn because further on to its right the group gradually changes to two main crests only, a typical form for a cord tone accompanied by a cavity tone nearly an octave higher. This condition of a cord tone with an octave cavity tone is modified in the first part by higher tones that do not form an exact harmonic interval with either of the other tones ; these give rise to the minor fluctuations in the middle of the line. These higher tones are of changing pitch, as can be seen by the steadily changing form.\nThe puffs of air from the cords are not generally of the even nature found in sinusoid vibrations ;3 they rather resemble more or less sharp explosions. 4 In this sound they are not so sharply explosive as in au of \u201cshroud \u201d or \u00e6 of \u201csparrow,\u201d yet the puff has its greatest intensity in the first part of the interval of time it occupies.\n1For examples see T\u00e2ittir\u00eeya Pr\u00e2ti\u00e7\u00e2khya, II. 47, ed. by Whitney, Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc., 1871 IX 77.\nMichaelis, \u00dcber das H und die verwandten Laute, Arch. f. d. Studium d. neueren Sprachen (Herrig), 1887 LXXIX 49, 283.\n2\tMeyer, Stimmhaftes H, Neuere Sprachen, 1900 VIII 261 ; tsum ftimhaftn ha, Ma\u00eetre phon\u00e9tique, 1901 XVI 87.\nKLINGHARDT, Stimmhaftes H, Neuere Sprachen, 1901 IX 85 ; Passy, H vocalique, Neuere Sprachen, 1901 IX 245.\n3\tScripture, Elements of Experimental Phonetics, 2, New York 1902.\n\u2018Scripture, as before, 260.","page":59},{"file":"p0060.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"6o\nE. W. Scripture,\nStarting from the strong vibrations (third quarter of line 2), we mark off backward the alternate higher vibrations as the points of maximum for each cord puff. We thus have the vibrations in pairs ; the period of the cord tone at any moment will be given by the distance between two such marked vibrations.\nAs we go towards the left, we see that each of the vibrations of a pair shows a tendency to split up into two minor vibrations ; this indicates the presence of higher cavity tones. Measurements of the periods of the cord tone show that it steadily rises in pitch (Plate XIV, Fig. 2).\nThe alternate (or cavity) vibration keeps very closely at the middle of the cord period ; though in the first portion it is generally a little behind the middle point. This indicates a cavity tone in general an octave higher than the cord tone, but a little lower in the first portion. The details can be brought out by measurements.\nIn addition to the two maxima of amplitude in line 2 there is a third maximum in line 3. It may be suggested that perhaps this vowel sound is to be considered as a triphthong. Careful listening to the gramophone plate enables the ear to hear two maxima clearly and the third faintly. The maxima are due, not to any breath emphasis, but to coincidence of the cavity period with a submultiple of the cord period. 1\nThe word \u201c shroud \u201d occurs in \u201cWho \u2019ll make his shroud? \u201d\nOne pseudobeat for the r occurs at the flat place in line 4. The vibrations in line 3 and at the beginning of line 4 belong to the vowel-like sound in connection with which the flaps of the r occur. After the occlusion of the pseudobeat the tongue again allows the cord- and cavity-vi bradons to appear. The form of the vibration is different, indicating a changing adjustment of the mouth from the r position to the a position ; this position is to be considered as the r-a glide. There is no possibility of limiting the r from the a, or of marking off a distinct r-a glide ; the change is gradual throughout.\nThe r-a glide after the flap is followed by the long record for au reaching to the middle of line 5. The latter part of line 5 contains the faint vibrations of the u-d glide, the still fainter ones of the V-occlusion, and the strong ones of the V-explosion.\nThe curve of frequency is shown in Plate XIV, Fig. 3. During au the cord tone rises from 120 in frequency to hi and then falls steadily to 92. The diphthongized vowel au is thus of circumflex pitch. In d the cord tone rises to 109.\nThe au is of crescendo-diminuendo intensity, the crescendo being gradual and the diminuendo rather sudden.\n1 Scripture, as before, 13.","page":60},{"file":"p0061.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t61\nThe word \u201c sparrow \u201d occurs in \u201c I, said the sparrow.\u201d The ce begins at the first quarter of line 6. The first few cavity vibrations show a changing form as thep glides into the \u00e6. The \u00e6 ends at the last quarter of line 6 ; here the cavity vibrations again change their forms as the \u00e6 becomes r. The r has one flap. This does not produce absolute silence, as some vibrations can still be detected in the tracing. The very long o extends over the last fifth of line 6 and nearly all of line 7. In general the curve of this 0 differs considerably in the details of the cavity vibrations from that of o in \u201c bow \u201d (above) ; it has none of the large and sudden changes in amplitude.\nThe curve of frequency of the cord tone is shown in Plate XIV, Fig. 4.\nThe cord tone starts at \u0153 with 125 in frequency, rises to 202, and then falls slowly to 136 at the end of o. The amplitude of \u0153 increases slowly, then falls suddenly, and becomes almost zero at the end of the ce r glide. The amplitude of 0 increases quite rapidly and continuously during the 0 to a maximum beyond which it gradually decreases as the vowel fades away in its gradual exit.\nThe words \u201cdraw your\u201d occur in the introduction \u201c Now, children, draw your little chairs nearer.\u201d The last five lines give the curve for nearly all of oju, omitting a piece at the end. The recording surface was run at a greater speed than for the previous curves ; the space-time equation is imn'=o.0007s. This speed is more favorable for the details of vibrations of greater amplitude but less favorable for those of smaller amplitude.\nThe analysis of the curve may be approached in the following way. The vibrations in the latter portion of the eighth line are evidently to be grouped in threes. There is present here a cord tone with a cavity tone a duodecime above it. The last group on this line has a length of indicating a cord period of 0.0071s, or a frequency of 143. Measuring backward we find that the preceding group is a little longer than this one ; in fact each group is found to be a little longer than the following one. The cord tone is thus shown to be rising in pitch.\nThe three small vibrations that make up the last group on line 8 are nearly equal in length although the last one appears to be cut off somewhat by the following stronger vibration of the next group. The preceding group shows nothing of the cutting off. The next preceding group shows that the three small vibrations do not quite fill out the interval between the apexes of two strong vibrations selected to mark off the groups. This becomes still more evident in the further preceding groups. This condition seems to indicate that the small vibrations composing a group retain a constant period while the length of the","page":61},{"file":"p0062.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"\u00d62\nE. W. Scripture,\ngroup is changing. In confirmation of this we finally find four small vibrations instead of those in the early part of the vowel. The period of the small vibrations is approximately 0.0028s, giving a frequency of 357. This is a very clear illustration of the fact that the cavity tones of vowels are independent of the cord tone in regard to pitch, and are not overtones of it as commonly supposed.\nThat there are still other resonance tones is indicated by minor deformations of the curve, but further information concerning them is not obtainable at present.\nProceeding onward, we find that the cord tone continues to rise. At the first quarter of line 9, the length of a group is 9.0\u201c\u2122, giving a period of 0.0063s, or a frequency of 159 ; at the third quarter the length is 8.omm, the period 0.0053s and the frequency 179. The tone now rises more slowly. At the first quarter of line 10 the length is 7.5\u2019\u00b0\u201d', the period 0.0053s, and the frequency 189. Beyond this point the tone remains nearly constant.\nIn the meantime the cavity vibrations have been undergoing a change. Instead of one cavity tone, two begin to show themselves distinctly. The most powerful one appears as a fairly strong vibration at somm (0.0035s) after each strongest vibration in the group. Although the group shortens, this vibration remains at a nearly constant distance from the beginning, necessarily, however, approaching closer and closer to the end of the group. The strong secondary vibration has been observed1 in many cases of a in ai. In those cases it remained at a constant distance from the beginning of the group till the group became so short that it coalesced with the strongest vibration of the following group. Here the result is different. Instead of remaining at an absolutely constant distance behind the preceding strongest vibration of the group, it gradually, but not greatly, lessens the distance till, as the cord tone becomes stationary in pitch, it ultimately occupies the middle of the group as the octave of the cord tone. But another change has taken place that is of a puzzling nature ; this strong secondary gradually becomes stronger than the other vibrations in the group. This can be readily seen by checking off the strongest vibrations in line 9 as boundaries of groups beginning at the left ; in the middle it will be found that one vibration has become stronger than the ones that must be checked off as boundaries of groups. An explanation of this phenomenon is lacking.\nThe cord tone remains constant with a period of about 0.0053s throughout line 10. The cavity tone at an octave above also remains\n} Scripture, Researches in experimental phonetics ( first series). Stud. Yale Psych. Lab., 1899 VII 26.","page":62},{"file":"p0063.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n63\nunchanged. The other cavity tones that produce the small marked inflections in line 9 and line 10 gradually die away, leaving the vibrations grouped in pairs at the end of line 10.\nIn line 11 the vowel somewhat suddenly decreases in amplitude. It is followed by the small vibrations of the weak (but not very short) j that precedes ti in \u201cyour.\u201d\nLine 12 shows the vowel u of \u201c your \u201d;the curve is not completed.\nThe curve of frequency is given in Plate XIV, Fig. 5. The cord tone rises from about 75 in frequency at the beginning of 0 (line 8) to about 189 (line 10), after which it remains practically constant until it begins to fall in the j-j glide (last part of line 10). During j and u the tone falls steadily.\nThe curves in Plate II are from the words: \u201cI\u201d in \u201cI, said the beetle,\u201d \u201cmy\u201d in \u201c with my bow and arrow,\u201d \u201cparson\u201d in \u201cI\u2019ll be the parson,\u201d \u201c saw him \u201d in \u201c I saw him die,\u201d \u201ccaught\u201d in \u201cWho caught his blood?\u201d and \u201csaid\u201d in \u201cI, said the rook.\u201d\nThe curve for \u201c I \u201d shows a series of vibrations in which each group resembles the neighboring one, while there is a gradual change in character from a typical form for the a in the first part to a typical form for the i in the second part of the diphthong ai of which the pronoun \u201c I \u201d is composed. In the first portion there appears a succession of strong vibrations, each followed by a series of weaker ones. These strong vibrations recur at periods of steadily decreasing length.\nIf we consider separately each group of vibrations beginning with a strong one, we find that it is, aside from minor details, the typical curve 1 of a vibration initiated by a blow and dying away by friction, for which the equation is\n_*\t\u2022 t\ny = a-e - sin 2tr \u2014 ,\nwhere y is the elongation at the moment t, a the amplitude, e the basis of the natural series of logarithms, k a factor representing friction and T the periodic time.\nThe succeeding groups of vibrations following the first group are of the same form but of steadily increasing amplitude. They recur at steadily decreasing intervals. The formula for each group is approximately the same except for the difference in amplitude. The vibrations are evidently aroused by a series of blows of steadily increasing strength at steadily decreasing intervals.\nIt seems clear that these vibrations represent the free vibrations of the\n1 Scripture, Elements of Experimental Phonetics, 6, New York 1902.","page":63},{"file":"p0064.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"64\nE. W. Scripture,\nair in the mouth cavity aroused by a series of sudden blows and that these sudden blows are due to explosive openings of the vocal cords.1\nThe tone from the cords results from the succession of groups of vibrations ; it is a tone of intermittence. The period of the tone from the cords is represented by the distance from the strong vibration at the beginning of each group to the strong one at the beginning of the following group.\nThe complexities of the small vibrations indicate the presence of several partial tones. These complexities change steadily from the beginning of the vowel onward as the pitch rises, in a way to indicate the presence of at least the following partials: i. the fundamental cord tone consisting of a series of explosions rising from a period of 0.0170s (frequency, 59) to one of 0.0052s (frequency, 192); 2. a constant cavity tone of 0.0034s period (frequency, 294) shown by the large secondary ; 3. a constant cavity tone of 0.0013s period (frequency, 769) shown by the smaller vibrations, and 4. higher cavity tones undergoing change.2\nThe minor complexities in the vibrations disappear at about one-quarter of the distance from the left on the second line in the figure. At the same time the amplitude is strongly increased. Shortly afterward the amplitude decreases and finally reaches zero. Throughout the whole latter portion the curve has an entirely different character from that of the first half ; we are probably quite safe in considering it the curve of i in the diphthong ai. Throughout the i the groups consist of two vibrations, one slightly stronger than the other. The period for the group 0.0052s (frequency, 192) remains constant till near the end, where it lengthens to about 0.0122\" (frequency, 82). The cavity vibration forming half of each group remains constant at 0.0026s (frequency, 384) through nearly all of the i. Toward the close it apparently still remains at the same period, producing phenomena of interference as the group period is lengthened.\nFrom the curve for i it seems justifiable to conclude that the vocal cords emit explosions instead of sinusoid puffs of air here as well as in the a. The explosion produces a strong free vibration in the mouth cavity which is followed by another of diminished amplitude. This would be followed by a third of still less amplitude, just as in a, but a new explosion from the cords occurs at just that moment. The coincidence of double the period of the cavity tone with the period of the cord explosions explains the rapid gain in amplitude when the cord tone rises sufficiently to produce the coincidence (p. 62). The maximum is followed by a relaxa-\n1 Scripture, as before, 260.\n2Scripture, as before, 91.","page":64},{"file":"p0065.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n65\ntioti in the force of breath, but the two tones maintain the same relation for a considerable time. As the sound finally dies away, the cords also relax, both breath and pitch falling together. The explosions from the cords seem much less sharp in i than in a.\nIn \u201cmy\u201d the m vibrations are too faint for accurate measurement. The a resembles somewhat, but not closely, the \u00ab of \u201cI.\u201d The period of the cord explosions remains constant at 0.0074s (frequency, 135) instead of decreasing. 1 he lower cavity tone has a period in the neighborhood of 0.0022s (frequency, 455) ; it apparently undergoes a slow change from the beginning of the a to the i.\nThe last third of the curve somewhat resembles the / portion of \u201cI.\u201d There is, however, only a faint rise in amplitude, and the i portion is very brief. The vibrations in this portion are in groups of three ; the groups have a period of 0.0074s (frequency, 135) constant to the end. The vibrations within the group have a period one-third that of the group itself, indicating a constant cavity tone of 0.0025s (frequency, 400).\nIn the a of \u201c parson \u201d the cord tone rises from a period of 0.0090s (frequency, hi) to one of 0.0072s (frequency, 139) and falls again to the pitch from which it started. There are indications of a constant cavity tone of 0.0022s (frequency, 455) and of higher tones with changing periods. In respect to the pitch of the lowest cavity tone there is close agreement of this a with that of \u201c my, \u2019 \u2019 yet the form of the curve resembles that of a in \u201c I \u201d more closely than that in \u201cmy.\u201d The peculiarity of \u201c my \u201d seems to lie chiefly in the suddenness with which the vibrations within a group fall in amplitude after the initial strong vibration. In both parson and \u201cI the cavity vibrations within each group during a die away less quickly. Such differences may perhaps find their explanation either in the greater friction on the free vibratory movement in the mouth (less rigidity of the walls?) or in the sharper character of the cord explosions in the case of \u201c my.\u201d\nThe curve for y in \u201csaw him \u201d indicates a quite different vocal action from that present in a. Instead of a strong initial vibration followed by decreasing ones the earlier portion of the vowel shows groups that contain at least two strong vibrations. It is presumably the case that the cord explosions are of a more gradual character or else that the action of friction is much less. Even later in the vowel where there is apparently only one very strong vibration in a group, this probably occurs because the lower portion of the second one is cut off by interference with another partial tone.\nThe cord tone, starting with a period of 0.0072s (frequency, 179), remains at this pitch for a time and then falls to 0.0080s in period","page":65},{"file":"p0066.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"66\nE. U'. Scripture,\n(frequency, 125). The lower cavity tone with a period of 0.0026\u201c (frequency, 385) is apparently present.\nThe last part of the line shows the vibrations for i, resembling those for i in ai of \u201c I \u201d and \u201c my.\u201d The middle portion, where there is a weakening in amplitude, belongs to the sonant h (p. 58). The m is just begun where the record is cut off. The grouping in the 1 is by threes. The cord tone of / starts with a period of 0.0083s (frequency, 121) and steadily rises to one of 0.00723 (frequency, 139) in the m. The lower cavity tone has a period of about 0.0025s (frequency, 400).\nThe curve for the 2 of \u201c caught \u2019 \u2019 exhibits a decided difference from that for the 2 of \u201c saw,\u201d although both vowels are generally considered to be the same. The 2 of \u201c caught \u2019 \u2019 shows a quick and strong increase in amplitude followed by a rather sudden decrease. Its pitch is approximately constant. The initial strong vibration of a group is followed by very much weaker vibrations ; the cord action resembles that in a rather than in the 2 of \u201c saw.\u201d In the last few groups there is a marked change as the 2 alters to t.\nThe cord tone rises from a period of 0.00745 (frequency, 135) to one of 0.0064\u201c (frequency, 156) but falls again in the last few periods. The lower cavity tone seems to have a period of about 0.0024s (frequency, 417). Other tones of higher pitch are present.\nIn the e of \u2018 \u2018 said \u2019 \u2019 the vocal action is seen to differ essentially from that in a or 2 and to resemble somewhat that in i. There is much less indication of the explosive character of the cord tone. There are three cavity vibrations to each group. The pitch of the cord tone is nearly constant at 0.0072s period (frequency, 139); the lower cavity tone has a period of 0.0024s (frequency, 417)- lhere are minor fluctuations in the curve that indicate higher cavity tones. The amplitude increases steadily until the vowel is ended rather abruptly by the change to d.\nIV. Studie-; of the Jefferson curves.\nJoseph Jefferson1 * was born at Philadelphia in 1829. He grew up in the midst of theatrical surroundings. He was brought on the stage at the age of four, and showed unusual imitative ability. His most famous part is that of Rip Van Winkle in the play of that name.\nJoseph Jefferson\u2019s great-grandfather, Joseph Jefferson, was an English actor of prominence. His grandfather, Joseph Jefferson, was born at Plymouth, England ; as a lad he acted upon the stage ; at about twenty years of age he migrated to America where he achieved dis-\n1 Jefferson, The Autobiography of Joseph Jefferson, New York 1889.\nWinter, The Jeffersons, Boston 1881.","page":66},{"file":"p0067.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in exper\u00fcnentalphonetics.\n67\ntinction as an actor ; he married the Arnerican-born daughter of an emigrant Scotch merchant. His father was Joseph Jefferson, an American actor and painter.\nHis maternal grandfather and grandmother were French. On a journey from France to San Domingo a daughter was born to them in New York City. They resided in San Domingo till 1803, after which they lived in Charleston, South Carolina. The daughter, Cornelia Frances Thomas, won an excellent rank in Charleston as an actress and a singer. Her first husband was the Irish comedian, Thomas Burke. Her second was Joseph Jefferson, father of the speaker of these records.\nOwing to his mixed ancestry, to the constant wanderings of his parents and himself, and to the actor\u2019s tendency toward freedom from dialectal peculiarities, Jefferson\u2019s speech is typically American in every sense that can be given to the term.\nA gramophone disc, numbered 698 Z, containing Rip Van Winkle's Toast spoken by Joseph Jefferson was traced off by the machine shown in Fig. i. The words on the plate were \u201cCome, Rip, what do you say to a glass ? What do I say to a glass ? Huh, now what do I generally say to a glass? I say it is a fine thing\u2014when there\u2019s plenty in it. Ha! So. You had it ten years ago, eh ? Ah. That\u2019s fine schnapps. I wouldn\u2019t keep it as long as that, would I ? Huh, huh. Well, here\u2019s your good health, and your family\u2019s; and may they all live long and prosper. Ah.\u201d The complete tracing is reproduced in Plates III to XI. Each group of words on these plates refers to the following portion of the curve. The figures show the number of millimeters of straight line cut out of the record.\nA. The melody of Rip Van Winkle's Toast.\nAfter a general analysis1 of the record the lengths of the successive groups of vibrations were carefully measured in tenths of a millimeter. The lengths were turned into time by the equation imm=o.0007s ; the results were the periods of the cord tone. The reciprocals of the periods gave the frequencies. For example, a group of vibrations corresponding to one explosion from the cords measured o.oo38ram ; multiplied by 0.0007 this gave a period of 0.0061s, and 1 -5- 0.0061 gave a frequency of 167. The curve of frequency (pitch, or melody) was plotted by supposing the original speech curve, as in Plates III to XI, to be laid along a horizontal axis, and erecting above the beginning of each group an ordinate proportional to the frequency. In this way the curve of frequency for the entire set of plates was plotted on a strip (over 17\n1 The methods of analysis are described in Scripture, Elements of Experimen al Phonetics, Ch. V, New York 1902.","page":67},{"file":"p0068.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"68\nE. IV. Scripture,\nmeters long) of millimeter paper. This was then divided into convenient pieces and made into two blocks (Plates XII and XIII) with a reduction to one-fifth. The horizontal scale of time in the melody plates is thus imm=o.0035s, or one-fifth that in the original speech plates. The dots of the plot were joined by straight lines. This gives the results accurately ; but a more truthful representation of the melody-effect would be made by a curve running smoothly through the dots (P- 58)-\nThe vertical scales indicate frequency, or the number of vibrations a second. Each group of words refers to a portion of the melody-curve extending from its beginning to a group of large figures on the horizontal line ; during each portion the horizontal line remains unbroken. The large figures indicate, as in Plates III to XI, the portions of straight line in the original tracings that were omitted in preparing the plates ; they may be turned into time by the original equation of imm = 0.0007s.\nThe interruptions in the melody-curve indicate surds, or very weak sonants, or pauses.\nThe curve in Plates XII and XIII shows a very low and even melody of speech that is varied at times for emotional expression. In general each sentence begins low, rises gradually, and then falls ; but variations occur. The changes in the tone are usually continuous.\n\u201c Come Rip \u201d shows a rise at the end, which is a common inflection for a cheerful, animated invitation. \u201cWhat do you say to a glass?\u201d shows a low vowel, then a rise to the u of \u201cyou\u201d ; this u, however, begins to fall just before the following word. \u201c Say \u201d is of high pitch, as is frequently the case for the verb of a question ; the fall at the end of \u201cyou \u201d may have been a kind of preparation by contrast for the high pitch of \u201csay.\u201d The highest pitch for the phrase is found in \u201c glass\u201d ; it is even higher than in \u201csay,\u201d probably because of the greater emphasis given to the word \u201cglass.\u201d The pitch falls toward the end of \u00e6 in \u201c glass \u201d ; such a fall is usual in a sentence beginning with an interrogative word or phrase that is not especially emphatic. These words were spoken by Jefferson as introductory to the Toast itself. The invitation is followed by a long pause of 2.86s before the reply comes.\nThe toast begins with a repetition of the question of invitation. It is spoken in a rather soft manner, as appears not only to the ear but also in the small amplitude of the waves in Plate IV. The pitch curve is fairly level, with some rise at the end instead of a fall. This rise is the usual ending of a repeated interrogative sentence. The general pitch is lower than that of the invitation. A pause of 0.41\u201c follows.\nThe exclamation \u201c Huh \u201d is a kind of chuckle. It is of a very high","page":68},{"file":"p0069.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t69\npitch but small intensity and short duration. It is followed by a pause of 1.058.\n\u201c Now' what do. I generally say to a glass? \u201d shows a very even rise and a very gradual fall ; its general pitch is low. It is a kind of bantering statement. The long pause of 2.16s seems to express a simulated expectation of a reply.\n\u201c I say it is a fine thing\u201d is a decided statement with emphasis on \u201cfine thing.\u201d It has the usual circumflex form as far as \u201ca.\u201d If the sentence had been completed with no further emphasis, the pitch would probably have continued to fall. The rise in pitch for the specially emphatic \u201cfine thing\u201d adds an accessory circumflex. The pause of 1.78s and the fall in pitch lead the hearer to suppose the sentence finished.\n\u201c When there\u2019s plenty in it \u201d is muttered as a joke. Its pitch is not lower than usual. The emphasis \u2018 \u2018 plenty in it \u201d gives a higher pitch to the latter portion. The w'hole statement has the usual circumflex form. The long pause 2.90s is presumably occupied by the first sip of the toast.\nThe soft exclamation of satisfaction \u201cha\u201d has a falling pitch. It is followed by a pause of 1.79s. The \u201cso\u201d expresses deep satisfaction. It begins moderately high and falls steadily in pitch. To the ear it has a peculiar rattle of a low pitch as if some particles of liquor had lodged on the edge of the epiglottis, as is sometimes the case after drinking. This peculiar effect shows itself in the alternately louder and weaker character of the groups of vibrations as seen in Plate VII. Such a curve could be produced by the cord explosions striking against a mass of liquid that would vibrate readily at a submultiple of the cord period ; the portion of liquid w'ould rise and fall, weakening the cord tone on alternate periods. It is probable that when speaking into the gramophone recorder Jefferson produced this effect by some muscular adjustment (epiglottis, ventricular bands) and not by an actual sip of liquid. \u201c So \u201d is followed by a pause of 2.008.\n\u201c You had it ten years ago, eh ? \u201d is spoken as a continuous sentence ; there is complete fusion of the vowels at the end. The first part rises rapidly to a high pitch. The circumflex form is marked, the fall beginning in the o of \u201c ago. \u2019 \u2019 The \u201c eh \u201d has a circumflex form joined to the o curve. In spite of the complete fusion of these vowels we may perhaps consider \u201ceh\u201d as a stressed tag with a pitch-curve of its own. The sound indicated here by \u201c eh \u201d begins with a very w'eak breathing and seems slightly nasalized. The long pause of 2.45s indicates perhaps the time of another sip.","page":69},{"file":"p0070.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"7o\nE. W. Scripture,\n* \u2018 Ah \u201d is an expression of satisfaction ; it appears to the ear much lower and smoother than the \u2018 \u2018 ha. \u201d The following pause is very short, 0.13s.\n\u201c That\u2019s fine schnapps \u201d is not an emphatic statement but expresses a decided conviction after a satisfactory trial. It shows the usual initial rise for a declarative sentence, but instead of falling at the end, it rises slightly. This peculiar rise seems to express conviction after a doubt. The figures 333mm after \u201cthat\u2019s\u201d indicate the portion of tracing (Jsf) left out in the original record, and not a pause. The sentence is followed by a pause of 1.92s.\n\u201c I wouldn\u2019t keep it as long as that \u201d has the usual circumflex form ; it is followed by a brief pause of o. 29s.\n\u201c Would I \u201d is used to turn the declaration into question. It is very brief. A short pause, 0.25s, follows.\nThe very brief and faint chuckle \u201c Huh, huh \u201d is followed by a pause of i. 20s.\nThe introductory \u201cWell \u201d\u2014presumably spoken as the glass is lifted \u2014rises steadily to a high pitch. It is followed by a long pause of 3-43s-\n\u201c Here\u2019s your good health \u201d rises steadily to a very high pitch. The speaker makes a rather long pause, 0.94s, perhaps for emphasis. He then completes the thought in his mind by \u201cand your family\u2019s.\u201d This tag-phrase has, however, somewhat the character of a separate sentence ; its pitch-curve is circumflex. It is followed by a pause of 1.54s.\nThe invocation \u201cand may they all live long and prosper\u201d appears to have the solemn steady intonation of a somewhat religious utterance. The pitch-curve shows great evenness ; there is a rise at the beginning and a fall at the end. The fall appears during the first part of \u201cprosper\u201d ; during the last part the cords have so relaxed that they produce only a few rather irregular vibrations (Plate XI); this last syllable appears to the ear almost as a surd or whispered one. It is followed by a pause of 1.74s, during which the toast is presumably drunk.\nThe \u201c ah \u201d is a low, soft exclamation of gustatory satisfaction after the toast. The peculiar rattle is heard as in \u201c so \u201d above ; the same alternation in the character of the groups of cord vibrations appears. The pitch-curve shows a steady fall. The last vibrations are of a very low pitch ; they appear clearly in the tracing but they are probably too low for the ear to catch.\nB. Duration of sounds in Rip Van Winkle's Toast.\nMeasurements of the lengths of the speech sounds in the Jefferson records were made by an assistant under my guidance. The complete-","page":70},{"file":"p0071.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\nTABLE.\n.22\n.02\n\u25a031\n\u25a043\n\u25a030\n.16\n1.28\ng\nI\ni-33\nn\n\u2022h\n.22\n.07\n\u202225\n.02\n\u25a0 II\n\u202235\n2.23\n\u25a025\n.11\n\u202225\n.05\n.16\n.04\n\u202213\n.10\n\u202233\nati o. 22 hw .04\n! \u25a0\nj\nu\nh\n\u0153\nd\n0\ne(pn? )\n1\n.18\tn\th\tz\n\tI\t.12\tJ I\n\u202203\tn\t.09\tu j\n\t\u0153\t\u202224\t\u00a7\n.22\tP\t\tu\n\ts\tV\ti-97\td )\n\t1\t!\th}\n\ta\t\te\n\u202245\ti\t[\u2022\t-3\u00b0\tl\n\tw\t.07\t\u00bb 1\n\tu\t.XI\t\n3-\u00b07\td\t\u2022\u00b03\tp\n\tn\t.16\tn\n\u202232\tt\tt\t.ix\tJ 1\n1.86\tk\t)\tUP j\n\ti\t\u202213\t/\n\u202249\tP\t\t\u0153\n2.06\ti\t\u25ba\t.06\tm\n\tt\t\tp\n\t\u0153\t.11\tl\n\u202239\tz\t.06\ti\n\tl\t\u202224\tz l\n.06\t?\t\u202234\t\n.11\tV\t.07\t\u0153\n\u25a019\tp\t)\tn ]\n\t\t\tm j\n\t\ty -93\t\n\t\u00ab\t\te\n.70\ta\t)\t\u00d6\n\tt \u2022f\t\te\n\t\t\tD )\n.02\tw\t\u202232(?)\tll l\n.08\tu\t\tX j\n.09\td\t\tV\n.80\t;]\t\u2022o9(?)\tl\n\t\t\tp\n2.52\n\u202252\n1\nh?h?\nn\n.26\n\u25a023\n\u20223\u00b0\n\u202213\n3-56\n\u25a029\ns )\t\ti\t.29\t\t\t\u2022? I\t\tn\n\t.46\tV\t.10\tsi\t.19\t7\u00dc j\t1.14\t'1\nh j\t\tV\t> T .no\t\u0153\t.22\te\t\u202232\tP\n\u25a0S\nt\n3\n.09\n\u202224\n.02\n.16\n\u2022\u00b03\n\u202230\n\u25a007\n\u202297\n.16\n.16\n.14\n.12\n\u202223\n.07\n.06\n.08\n\u202213\n1.64\n.01\n.12\n.16\n.05\n\u202231\n1.76\n.10\n.18\n.62\n\u202234\n\u20223\u00b0\n?\n?\n?\n71","page":71},{"file":"p0072.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"72\nE. IV. Scripture,\nness of the fusion of sounds in connected speech1 made it impossible to assign any very definite limits to most of the sounds. When a sound was next to a pause or a surd, its limit was placed at the extreme vibration. Thus the first vibration of ? in \u201ccome\u201d (Plate III, line i) and the last distinct one of i (line 4) gave fairly definite limits. Yet the curve shows quite clearly that the f-vibrations began to be weakened by closure for the p somewhere about 6omm from the right end of line 4 ; faint vibrations can, however, be detected at about i5mm from the end; thus, even in a case like this, it is impossible to mark off the limits of i, i-p glide, and p. In other cases there is no possibility of assigning any limits, because the sounds are fused into gradually changing ones ; thus in line .13 the u of \u201cto\u201d changes to 9 \u201ca,\u201d but the change is a gradual one beginning far back in the u and extending throughout the 3. In fact, there are not two sounds u and 9 united by a glide ; there is a changing sound which at some one instant may be an 21 and at a later one may be an 9, and which to the ear (trained to various associations) gives an impression resembling a sequence of u and 9. In spite of these facts I venture to give figures for the duration of sounds in these Jefferson records in order to furnish some approximate data ; the figures are subject to the limitations just explained ; where I have been utterly unable to decide on a limit I have indicated the fusion by a brace in the Table.\nThe phonetic notation is used in the Table merely to indicate the sounds in order to aid in marking off their duration ; it is not intended as an accurate phonetic analysis. For example, the use of 9 for the short vowel in \u201c what \u201d does not necessarily mean that the sound is identical with the 9 in \u201ccome\u201d ; to the ear the brief vowel in this case seems related to a, 3, and 9, but it is hardly possible to decide on the degrees of likeness. The symbol indicates a sonant t.\nV. Studies of vibrating springs.\nAccording to the Helmholtz theory2 a vowel is produced by a cord vibration of the nature of a sinusoid or a harmonic series of sinusoids acting on a resonating cavity or on a set of such cavities. The method of manufacturing a vowel by synthesis of tones would, if this theory were\n1\tScripture, Elements of Experimental Phonetics, 452, New York 1902.\n2\tHelmholtz, \u00dcber d. Vokale, Arch. f. d. holl. Beitr. z. Natur- u. Heilk., 1857 I 354-\nHelmholtz, \u00dcber d. Klangfarbe d. Vokale, Gel. Anz. d. k. bayr. Akad. d. Wiss., 1859 537 ; also in Ann- d. Phys. u. Chem., 1859 CVIII 280, and in Ges. wiss. Abhandl., 1 395\u00bb 397\u00bb Leipzig 1882.\nHe\u2019 mholtz, Die Lehre v. d. Tonempfindungen, 5- Aufl., 168, Braunschweig 1896.","page":72},{"file":"p0073.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n73\ntrue, consist in adding tuning-fork tones of different pitches and intensities. This was attempted in Helmholtz\u2019s vowel apparatus.1 The method of manufacturing a curve like a vowel curve would, if the theory were true, lie in adding sinusoid vibrations of different periods and amplitudes. This was attempted with the harmonic curve adder of Preece and Stroh.2 Helmholtz\u2019s synthesis succeeded only for u and o ; it failed for all other vowels. Preece and Stroh produced curves that at best only distantly resembled vowel curves. The theory thus failed in both cases.\nAccording to the Willis-Hermann theory3 the cords emit puffs of greater or less sharpness, which act on the vocal cavities like sharp blows. I have attempted to construct a vowel machine on this principle ; the\naccount will be given later. I have also attempted to manufacture vowel curves by vibrating springs moved by sharp blows ; on the present occasion I will describe the apparatus and give some of the earlier results.\nThe steel spring B (Fig. 10), clamped tightly in a small vise D on\n1\tHelmholtz, Die Lehre v. d. Tonempfindungen, 5. Aufl., 200, Braunschweig 1896.\n2\tPreece and Stroh, Studies in acoustics, I. On the synthetic examination of vowel sounds, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., 1879 XXVIII 358.\n3Willis, On vowel sounds and on reed-organ pipes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1830 III 231 ; also in Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 1832 XXIV 397.\nHermann, Phonopholographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 LVIII 274.\nHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LXXIV 380, 381.","page":73},{"file":"p0074.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"74\nE. W. Scripture,\nthe frame IJ, bears at its end a recording point N of thin steel ribbon. The frame also carries an adjustable electro-magnet M clamped in place by L and a felt damper G adjusted as desired by the clamps F and H with their rod E. The rod A is placed in a supporting standard (Fig. n),\nFig. ii.\nwhich is so adjusted that the recording point rests against the surface of a smoked drum.\nThe drum is rotated by a small electric motor whose speed is regulated by an appropriate resistance ; Fig. n shows both a lamp resistance for large changes in speed and an adjustable wire resistance for smaller changes.\nA blow on the spring B causes it to draw a sinusoidal line on the drum ; the waves, however, slowly decrease in amplitude, owing to loss of energy by friction. A quicker decrease, due to additional damping, can be ob-\nFlG. 12.\ntained by placing the surface of the felt damper G more or less tightly against its edge. A curve of vibrations dying away by friction due to damping is shown in Fig. 12 ; it was made by the damped spring struck by a blow.\nWhen a material point is displaced from the position of equilibrium to which it is attracted by a force that increases directly as its displacement,","page":74},{"file":"p0075.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t7 5\nand then released, its vibration can be expressed with close approximation by\n-u \u25a0 t y \u2014 a.e \u25a0 sin 2-\nwhere y is the displacement of the point at the moment t, a the amplitude, e the constant 2.71828, k a factor depending on the relation between the mass of the point and the amount of the friction, and T the period under the given circumstances. The amplitude a is subjected to a steady decrease by the divisor elt, for in the expression a \u25a0 e~kt = the amplitude will have its greatest value only when k = o or when there is no friction. Any friction will give a positive value to k and this will reduce the value of a. When there is friction the value of eu will increase proportionately as time elapses ; thus a will be steadily reduced. The equation is illustrated by the curve in Fig. 12 ; the line drawn along the summits of the waves is the curve of amplitude a \u25a0 e~u.\nA vibratory body may receive a series of impulses. The results of different natural periods of the vibratory point, of frictional factors, of\nFig. 13\nvarious strengths of impulse and ot different intervals of repetition, can be studied by means of the vibrating spring. A series of impulses may be imparted to the spring B (Fig. 10) by brief electric currents sent through the magnet M. In a study of the action of such impulses on a spring these impulses were obtained and recorded in the following way. A hard rubber contact wheel A (Fig. 13) carried on its rim two pieces of metal BB'. A pair of copper brushes // bearing against the rim were the poles of a circuit through the magnet M (Fig. 10), indicated by 1 in","page":75},{"file":"p0076.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"76\nE. IV. Scripture,\nFig. 13. As B or B' passed across H, it closed the circuit and sent a magnetic impulse to the spring. This had the effect of a sharp blow. The strength of the blow could be readily adjusted by varying the current or displacing the magnet M. As it was desirable to have an indication of the exact moment at which the impulse was sent to the spring, a spark coil was made to register directly on the line drawn by the vibrating point. A pair of copper brushes C formed the poles of a circuit through the primary coil F of a spark coil, whose secondary coil E was connected by the wires G to the metallic spring and the base of the recording drum. A condenser D was connected around the break at C. Whenever a metal piece B or B\u2019 passed under the brushes C, the circuit was closed. With an appropriate adjustment of the current, a spark passed from the recording point through the paper to the drum, removing the smoke and making a white dot when the circuit was closed and also when it was broken. The two pairs of brushes were so adjusted that the sparks registered exactly the moments at which the impulses were sent through the magnet and those at which they ceased.\nA record of an experiment in which the contact wheel was revolved with steadily increasing rapidity is reproduced in Fig. 14. The waves were drawn by the point N (Fig. 10); the pairs of dots marked the\nFig. 14.\nbeginning and end of each impulse. The figure shows that each impulse started a vibration which died away by friction. If one impulse followed the preceding one before the vibration was entirely gone, its effect was increased or diminished according as the phase of movement in which it occurred was the same as or opposed to the movement started by the impulse. When the impulses occurred quite close together and at exactly the right phases, the summation of effects made the vibra-","page":76},{"file":"p0077.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n77\ntions very strong. In all such cases an increase occurred in amplitude whenever the period r of the impulses became a multiple of the natural period T of the spring. In all cases the spring vibrated with the period T; only the amplitude was affected by the vibrations of r.\nThe condition of equal lengths of impulse could not be illustrated with the arrangement just described, as the contacts through B and B' (Fig. 13) lasted a constant fraction of a revolution and the length of the impulse decreased proportionately as the speed of revolution increased. The impulses were weaker as they came faster. Nevertheless the increase in amplitude whenever r was a multiple of T appears strikingly in Fig. 14. This increase in amplitude for harmonic relations (that is, according to the simple ratios 1 : 2 : 3 : etc. ) between the natural period and that of the impressed force is known as \u2018 resonance. \u2019\nA synthesis of two frictional sinusoids may be accomplished by the arrangement shown in Fig. 15. The spring B is the spring B of Fig. 10. Upon it there is placed the slide V carrying the spring U and another slide R with the electro-magnet N. The movement of B is recorded on a smoked drum by the point IP, that of U by the point T. The magnet Mol the spring B (Fig. 10) and S of the spring U (Fig. 15) are connected with the contact wheel A (Fig. 13). When the current passes through M alone, both points Wand T draw the curve of vibration for B as in Fig. 14. When sent through S alone, the point T draws the curve of vibration of U. In both cases the vibration is a free frictional sinusoid. When the current is sent through both M and S, the point T draws the curve of the sum of the vibrations of B and U. The relations\nFig. 15.\nof period may be altered by changing the lengths of B and V, those of amplitude by shifting the magnets, those of damping by adjusting the dampers. When the curve drawn by T is like that found in a speech curve, it can be assumed that the speech curve is the result of two vibratory movements simultaneously aroused by a sudden blow, which have relations of pitch, amplitude and damping like those in the springs. The sudden blow is the puff from the cords heard in the cord tone and the two free vibrations are those of the vocal resonance cavities. Tables of typical combinations would be useful. A third sinusoid might be added","page":77},{"file":"p0078.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"78\nE. IV. Scripture,\nby placing another spring and magnet on U in the same way as U and ^ on B. Work on these problems is now in progress ; tables of curves may be expected at some future date.\nVI. Studies of breathing.\nRecords were obtained by an earlier form of the Marey pneumograph. This consisted of a rubber tube held distended by a coiled\nF;g. i6.\nspring ; the ends were closed ; ore of them communicated with a Marey tambour writing on a smoked drum. The set of records shown in Fig. 16 was made on myself.","page":78},{"file":"p0079.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n79\nOrdinary breaths followed by several deep ones are shown in the topmost records ; it will be noticed that the movements are very small after the blood has been refreshed by deep breathing. A record of ordinary breathing interrupted by sniffing, sobs and a sigh-like sob are shown in the second record ; the inspirations are very sudden. The curves for a groan and a sigh are also shown in the third record ; the inspirations are not sudden, and the expirations are more gradual than in the sigh, the groan showing a specially long and irregular expiration. All these sobs, groans and sighs were produced premeditatedly. A series of premeditated laughs is also shown. Each laugh consisted of \u2018 ho-ho-ho-ho \u2019 with falling pitch ; the laugh occupied the expiration-half of each curve. The record marked \u20184 lines of song\u2019 shows the breath expenditure during the singing of\n\u201c Way down upon the Swanee River,\nFar, far from home ;\nOh, darkies, how my heart does quiver,\nFar from the old folks at home.\u201d\nThe expiration of the breath not used during each line appears clearly each time at the end. The next to last record shows the usejof the breath in speaking the verses\n\u201c The Cities are full of pride,\nChallenging each to each ;\nThis from her mountain-side,\nThat from her burthened beach \u201d (Kipling).\nThe inspiration occurred just before the beginning of each line. The\nscale of\nequal breaths\tbreaths\ni, \u25a0//'( pp / / 1\nFig. 17.\t.\nlast record shows the breath-expenditure when the stanza was spoken more rapidly ; one deep inspiration with a slight accession afterwards is","page":79},{"file":"p0080.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"8o\nE. IV. Scripture.\nmade to do for each pair of lines. The discharge of the air not used in speaking is indicated by the sudden rise at the end of each line. Both, records were made with no intentional distribution of the inspirations. The time-line with seconds is given for all these records at the bottom.\nRecords of the air-pressure at the mouth were made by putting the end of a rubber tube loosely in the corner of the mouth and attaching the\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\nFig. 18.\nother end to a tambour recording on a smoked drum. Records of pressure intended to be equal and of some intended to be in the relations of i : 2 : 3 : 4 in intensity are shown in Fig. 17. Records of the variations in mouth-pressure during the recitation of four lines of Kipling\u2019s \u201cThe Cities,\u201d and of four lines of the nursery rhyme \u201c Cock Robin,\u201d are shown in Fig. 18.","page":80}],"identifier":"lit28750","issued":"1902","language":"en","pages":"49-80","startpages":"49","title":"Researches in experimental phonetics (second series)","type":"Journal Article","volume":"10"},"revision":0,"updated":"2022-01-31T15:22:40.519288+00:00"}