Open Access

JSON Export

{"created":"2022-01-31T15:22:38.327443+00:00","id":"lit28769","links":{},"metadata":{"alternative":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory","contributors":[{"name":"Scripture, Edward W.","role":"author"}],"detailsRefDisplay":"Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory 7: 1-101","fulltext":[{"file":"p0001.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"RESEARCHES IN EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS\n{First Series')\nBY\nE. W. Scripture.\nThe science of speech is at the present moment passing into the phase of experiment. For many years experiments have been made on the vowel sounds and on similar topics from a physical point of view, but it is only recently that the attempt has been made to arrange systematic work exclusively for the purposes of a science of speech itself.\nThe present study, begun in October, 1897, gives the account of some of the results already obtained (to the end of 1899) in the system of researches now in progress in the Psychological Laboratory of Yale University. The scope of these researches is far wider than the topics considered in this first report. \u201cExperimental phonetics\u201d would include the material of the present study but such a term would need to be extended beyond its present significance to include all the work now in progress here. I believe, however, that there will be no objection to using the name \u201cexperimental phonetics \u201d for a science of speech in all its forms as a matter of expression. This would include not only speech sounds as material for language, but also their changes resulting from different mental conditions such as fatigue, emotion and the like ; it would also include the study of rhythm in speech with its application in poetry and music.\nThe present investigation owes its immediate origin to suggestions from and discussions with Prof. T. D. Goodell (Greek) and Prof. Hanns Oertel (Comparative Philology). The question was raised concerning the possibility of using laboratory methods to settle the controversy in regard to the quantitative character of English verse. It was finally decided to study some records of English poetry made for one of the talking machines. After various trials it was found possible to obtain speech records in such a way that they could be measured.\nIt quickly became apparent that work on this problem required preliminary work on the elementary sounds of language. This work led to so many novelties and showed so clearly the need of revising many of our concepts of the nature of speech that the original problem was postponed","page":1},{"file":"p0002.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"2\nE. W. Scripture,\nuntil the most valuable facts in regard to spoken sounds could be collected. These facts lay before me immediately in the records ; it was only necessary to measure the sound curves and interpret them. This measuring was a most laborious and fatiguing process but after a month or two of practice in interpreting the curves the work proved to be incredibly profitable ; it was rare to spend an hour at work on them without discovering some new fact. The field is, indeed, so rich and so unexplored that there is unlimited gain for any one wishing to enter it. To any one wishing to use the same methods every possible facility will be afforded by the Yale laboratory.\nI. Apparatus for studying speech records.\nThe choice of a method for obtaining measurable records seemed to lie between :\nX. Causing the sound to trace a record that might be directly studied, without the possibility of reproducing the sound.\n2. Causing the sound to trace a record which could be used to reproduce the sound and which could also be studied.\nBoth of these principles involved most serious difficulties ; a long series of investigators and inventors had, however, rendered them possible.\nThe former principle appears to have been first applied by Scott in his phonautograph.'\nIn Scott\u2019s phonautograph a large parabolic receiving trumpet carries at its end a thin membrane whose movements cause a small recording lever to write upon the smoked surface of a cylindrical drum. The sounds of the voice passing down the receiver agitate the membrane and cause the lever to draw the speech curve on the drum. A vibrating fork serves to write the time line beside the speech line. Scott was a typographer and afterwards a dealer in photographs ; the instrument was made by Rudolph Koenig, the well-known maker of acoustical apparatus in Paris.\nThe instrument as improved by Koenig was used by Donders and others.1 2\nThe logograph of Barlow consisted of a trumpet or mouthpiece end-\n1\tScott, Inscription automatique des sons de l\u2019air au moyen d'une oreille artificielle, 1861.\nScott, Phonautographc, Annales du Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, Oct., 1864.\nScott, Phonautographc et fixation graphique de la voix, Cosmos, 1839 XIV 3x4.\nLippich, Studien \u00fcber d. Phonautographen von Scott, Sitzb. d. Wien. Akad., Math.-naturw. Kl., 1864 L (II. Abth.) 397.\n2\tDonders, Ueber d. Natur aer Vokale, Arch. f. d. lioll\u00e4nd. Beitr\u00e4ge z. Natur.- u. Heilk., 1858 I 157.","page":2},{"file":"p0003.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n3\ning in a thin membrane of rubber. A thin lever of aluminum carrying a point dipped in color wrote the speech curves on a band of paper.* 1\nA still further improved phonautograph was used by Schneebeli,2 which carried two points, one fixed to aid in comparison and the other moving with the membrane. The inscription was made on a light strip of glass covered with a light coating of smoke and drawn on a carriage rapidly in front of the recording points. The tracings were measured with the aid of micrometric screws. Schneebeli gives a number of the characteristic curves of the vowels.\nVarious similar methods have been employed with constantly better results. The ear drum has been used for the membrane by C. Blake.3\nThe hindrance due to the inertia of material levers was avoided by E. W. Blake, who attached a mirror to a telephone plate in such a way that a beam of light was deflected by each movement. A ray of light from a heliostat was reflected through lenses upon a photographic plate moving with a constant velocity. The sound wave thus recorded a line on the plate.4\nPreece and Stroh used a thin membrane of rubber stretched by a cone of paper. The cone was made to move a fine glass tube supplied with an aniline ink, the record being taken on a band of paper.5\nRigollot et Chav anon covered the wider end of a paraboloid with a very thin membrane of collodion, to the center of which was fixed a small mirror working on an axis of fine thread. The deflections of the ray of light were recorded on a sensitive paper.6\nDonders, Zur Klangfarbe der Vokale, Arch. f. d. holl\u00e4nd. Beitr\u00e4ge z. Natur, u. Heilk., 1861 IIT 446.\nDonders, Zur Klangfarbe der Vokale, Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 1864 CXXIII 527.\nDonders, De physiologie der spraakklanken, Utrecht 1870.\nSchwan und Pringsheim, Der franz\u00f6sische Accent, Arch. f. d. Studium d. neueren Sprachen, 1890 LXXXV 203.\n1 Barlow, On the pneumatic action which accompanies the articulation of sounds by the human voice, as exhibited by a recording instrument, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 1874 XXII 277.\t\u2022\nBarlow, On the articulation of the human voice, as illustrated by the logograph, Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., 1880 N. S. II 153.\n2Schneebeli, Exp\u00e9riences avec le phonautographe, Arch, des Sciences phys. et nat. de Gen\u00e8ve, 1878 (Nouvelle.p\u00e9riode) LXIV.\nSchneebeli, Sur la th\u00e9orie du timbre et particuli\u00e8rement des voyelles, Arch, des Sciences phys. et nat. de Gen\u00e8ve, 1879 (III. p\u00e9riode) I 149.\n3\tBlake, The use of the membrana tympani as a phonautograph and logograph ) Archives of Ophthal, and Otol., 1876 V No. 1.\n4\tBlake, A method of recording articulate vibrations by means of photography, Amer. Jour. Sei., 1878 XVI ss ; also in Nature, 1878 XVIII 338.\n5\tPreece and Stroh, Studies in acoustics, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 1879 XXVIII 358.\n6\tRigollot et Chavanon, Journal de physique, 1883 553.","page":3},{"file":"p0004.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"4\nE. IV. Scripture,\nThe most highly developed instrument of the lever recording type seems to be that of Hensen.1 It consists of a membrane of goldbeater\u2019s skin in a conical form produced by molding it over a shape while moist and allowing it to dry before removal. A single light lever attached to the center of the membrane carries a fine glass thread as a recording point. It writes the curve on a thinly smoked strip of glass. The curves are studied with a microscope. This instrument has been used in several investigations.2\nAn important improvement was made in Hensen\u2019s recorder by Pipping who replaced the glass thread by a small diamond which scratched the curve directly on the glass strip. With this instrument Pipping has made a series of investigations, chiefly on the vowels.3\nRapps also avoids the difficulties of a diaphragm or membrane by an ingenious optical method.4\nThe Marey tambours in various modifications have been frequently used.5 Other devices have been employed at different times.6\n1\tHensen, Ueber die Schrift vonSchallbewegungen, Zt. Biol., 1887 XXIII 291 ; first described by Gruetzner, Physiologie d. Stimme u. Sprache, 187, in Hermann\u2019s Handb. d. Physiol., I. Bd., II. Theil, Leipzig 1879.\n2\tWendf.LF.R, Ein Versuch, d. Schallbewegung einiger Consonantal u. anderer Ger\u00e4usche mit d. Hensen'sehen Sprachzeichner graphisch darzustellen, Diss. Kiel, 1886 ; also in Zt. f. Biol., 1887 XXIII 303.\nMartens, Ueber das Verhalten von Vokalen und Diphthongen in gesprochenen Worten, Diss. Kiel, 1888; also in Zt. f. Biol., 1889 XXV 289.\n3\tPipping, Om Klangf\u00e4rgen hos sjunga vokaler, Diss. Helsingfors, 1890 ; also as Zur Klangfarbe d. gesungenen Vokale; Untersuchung mit Hensens Sprachzeichner (Diss. in Swedish, Helsingfors 1890), Zt. f. Biol., 1890 XXVII 1.\nPipping, Nachtrag zur Klangfarbe der gesungenen Vokale, Zt. f. Biol., 1890 XXVII 433-\nPipping, Zur Lehre v. d. Vocalkl\u00e4ngen. Zt. f. Biol., 1895 XXXI 525.\nPipping, Phonautographische Studien \u00fcber d. Quantit\u00e4t schwedischer Worte u. d. musikalischen Accent, Finl\u00e4ndska Bidrag. tili Svensk Spr\u00e4k och Folklifsforskning, Helsingfors 1894.\nPipping, Ueber d. Theorie d. Vokale, Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennic\u00e6, 1894 XX No. II.\n4\tRapps, Ueber Lujtschwingungen, Diss., Berlin 1892 ; also in Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 1893 L 193.\n5\tRoussei.ot, Les modifications phon\u00e9tiques du langage, Paris 1892.\nBourdon, V Application de la m\u00e9thode graphique \u00e0 l'\u00e9lude de l\u2019intensit\u00e9 de la voix, Ann\u00e9e psychol., 1897 IV 369.\nWagner, Franz\u00f6sische Quantit\u00e4t (unter Vorf\u00fchrung des Albrecht'sehen Apparats), Phonet. Studien, 1893 VI I.\n6\tFick, Zur Phonographik, Beitr\u00e4ge zur Physiologie Ludwig gewidment, 23, Leipzig 1887.\nKoschlakoff, Die k\u00fcnstliche Reproduction \u00bb. graphische Darstellung d. Stimme, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1881 XXXIV 38.","page":4},{"file":"p0005.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n5\nThe manometric flame method was devised by Koenig.1 The vowel is sung or spoken into the trumpet leading to the small box known as the manometric capsule. This box is divided in two parts by a thin rubber membrane. The part opposite the trumpet is a tight chamber through which illuminating gas is flowing ; the gas is lighted at the end of the small tube. As the sound waves descend they strike the rubber membrane, set it in vibration and thus produce movements of the gas analogous to those of the air in the sound waves. By means of a revolving mirror the vibrations of the flame can be seen. These flames can be photographed2 by selecting the right composition of the illuminating gas ; cyanogen gas has been used ; a mixture of hydrogen and acetylene gas burning in a chamber of oxygen seems to be successful.\nThe foregoing methods have been employed for the solution of the most diverse problems.3\nThe second principle is that of the sound-reproducing machines, or talking machines.\nThe original talking machine seems to have been the phonograph of Edison. The tin-foil phonograph was afterwards superseded by the wax-cylinder form.\nA sheet of thin glass receives the sound waves and engraves them in a surface of hard wax by means of a sapphire knife attached to it. By replacing the sapphire knife with a round sapphire point the glass diaphragm is made to reproduce the sound.\nThe great advantage of this method lies in the fact that the record can be made audible at any time ; the accuracy of the result can thus be always tested.\n1\tKoenig, Die manometrischen Flammen, Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 1872 CXLVI 161.\nKoenig, Quelques exp\u00e9riences d'acoustique, 46, Paris, 1882.\nAuerbach, Untersuchungen \u00fc. d. Natur, des Vokalklangs, Diss. Berlin, 1876 ; also in Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 1876 Erg\u00e4nzungsbji. VIII.\n2\tStein, in Marey, La m\u00e9thode graphique, p. 647.\nDoumer, Mesure de la hauteur des sons par les flamme: manom\u00e9triques, C. r. Acad. Sei. Paris, 1886 CIV 340.\nDoumer, \u00c9tudes du timbre de: sons, par la m\u00e9thode des flammes manom\u00e9triques, C. r. Acad. Sei. Paris, 1887 CV 222.\nDoumer, Des voyelles dont le caract\u00e8re est tr\u00e8s aigu, C. r. Acad. Sei. Paris, 1887 CV 1247.\nMarage, \u00c9tudes des voyelles par la photographie des flammes manom\u00e9triques, Bull, de l\u2019Acad. de Med., 1897 XXXVIII 476.\nNichoi.ls and Merritt, Photography of manometric flames, Physical Review, 1898 VII 93.\n3\tAuerbach, Die physikalischen Grundlagen der Phonetik, Zt. f. franz. Sprache u. Lit., 1894 XVI 117.\nRousselot, Principes de Phon\u00e9tique Exp\u00e9rimentale, Paris 1897.","page":5},{"file":"p0006.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"6\tE. IV. Scripture,\nThe phonograph has been used to receive records which have afterwards been studied.\nThe methods of studying phonograph records are of two kinds. Direct enlargement and measurement by means of the microscope is the method followed by Boeke.\u2019 Enlargement by means of amplifying levers, recording directly on a smoked cylinder is the method used by a series of observers.\u2019 Phonograph records have been studied to a considerable extent.1 2 3\nEnlargement by means of levers recording on photographic paper by means of a beam of light is the method developed by Hermann.4 The Yale laboratory is equipped for this method also.\n1\tBoeke, Mededeeling omirent onderzoekingen van klinkerindruskels op de suasrollen van Edison\u2019s vcrbeterden fonograaf> De natuur, 1890, July.\nBoeke, Mikroskopische Phonogrammstudien, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1891 L 297.\nMeyer, Zur Tonbewegung des Vokals im gesproch. u. im gesung. Einzehuort, Phonet. Studien, 1897 X I (Neuere Sprachen, IV).\n2\tMayer, Edison's talking machine, Nature, 1878 XVII 469.\nFick, Zur Phonographik, Beitr\u00e4ge zur Physiologie Ludwig gewidmet, 23, Leipzig 1887.\nJenkin and Ewing, The phonograph and vcrwel theories, Nature, 1878 XVIII 167, 34\u00b0> 394-\nJeNKIN AND Ewing, On the harmonic analysis of certain vcnoel sounds, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1878 XXVIII 745.\nKluender, Ueber d. Genauigkeit der Stimme, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1879 I 119.\nLahr, Die Grassmann'sehe Vokaltheorie im Lichte des Experiments, Diss., Jena 1885 ; also in Ann. d. Phys.u. Chem., 1886 XXVII 94.\nM\u2019Kendrick, On the tone and curves of the phonograph, Jour. Anat. and Physiol., 1896 XXIX 583.\nM\u2019Kendrick, Murray and Wingate, Committee report on the physiol, application of the phonograph and on the form of the voice curves by the instrument, Rept. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sei., 1896 669.\nWagner, Ueber d. Verwendung d. Gruetzner-Mare\u00ffsehen Apparats u. d. Phonographen zur phonetischen Untersuchungen, Phonet. Studien, 1890 IV 68.\n3\tMarichelle, La parole d\u2019apr\u00e8s le trac\u00e9 du phonographe, Paris 1897.\nGelle, L\u2019audition, Paris 1897.\nMarage, Les phonographes et F \u00e9tude des voyelles, Anne\u00e9 psychol., 1898 V 226. \u2018Hermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, I., Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1889 XLV 582.\nHERMANN, Ueber d. Verhalten d. Vokale am neuen Edison'sehen Phonographen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLVII 42.\nHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, II., Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLVII 44.\nHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, III., Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLVII 347.","page":6},{"file":"p0007.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t7\n. Another of the talking machines is the gramophone. This is a development of the recording idea contained in Scott\u2019s phonautograph in combination with the idea of reproducing the sound in a special manner. The inventor of the method is Mr. Emu. Berliner, of Washington, D. C. The United States patents covering the apparatus and processes are as follows: Gramophone, No. 372,786, Nov. 8, 1887; Process of producing records of sound, No. 382,790, May 15, 1888; Gramophone, No. 534,543, Feb. 19, 1895 ; Sound-record and method of making same, No. 548,623, Oct. 29, 1895; Gramophone, No. 564,586, July 28, 1896. These patents can be readily found in the annual reports published by the United States Patent Office.\nThe researches to be now reported have been made with the aid of the gramophone ; an acquaintance with the principles involved in the production of the gramophone records is necessary to the proper understanding of the results obtained.\nI. Making gramophone plates.\nFor convenience the apparatus may be divided into two sections, the recorder and the impression disc.\nThe recorder with which I am acquainted is that described in the Letters Patent No. 564,586; it is shown in Fig. 1. The recorder comprises a thin glass diaphragm held in a frame, Fig. 2. This frame opens on one side into a speaking tube. It is cut away on the other side to afford connection with the recording stylus. From the center of the diaphragm a metal post rises, whose free end has an axial slot into which a piece of soft rubber tube is forced and flattened. The free end of the tube receives the metal stylus, which extends outward radially and ends in a flat, sharp, flexible point. Near the middle of the stylus a hole is bored and a pin formed at one end of a metal block passes through the hole and into the central bore of a similar block. Between each block and the stylus there is a soft rubber washer. The blocks are made to clamp the stylus by means of the pointed screws passing through the support and serving as pivots.\nHermann, Bemerkungen zur Vokalfrage, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLVIII 181, 543.\nHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, IV., Untersuchungen mittels des neuen Edison'sehen Phonographen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1893 LUI I.\nHermann und Matthias, Phonophotographische Mittheilungen, V., Die Curven d. Consonanten, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 255.\nHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, VI., Nachtrag zur Untersuchung der Voca/curven, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 264.\nHermann, IVeitere Untersuchungen \u00fc. d. Wesen d. Vocale, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1895 EX I 169.","page":7},{"file":"p0008.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"8\nE. W. Scripture,\nThese pivots form the fulcrum of the stylus. The stylus is dampened by a'piece of soft rubber inserted between it and the metal cover of the sound box.\nFig. i.\nThe sound waves coming down the speaking tube set the diaphragm in motion ; this diaphragm moves one arm of the stylus and the point at the end of the other arm repeats this movement.\nFig. 2.\nThe impression disc is prepared by two methods. I shall describe first the method with which I am acquainted and then a later method which seems of special interest.","page":8},{"file":"p0009.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n9\nIn the former method (Patent No. 382,790) a highly burnished zinc disc i8cm in diameter is flowed with a saturated solution of wax in benzine ; the film of wax thus deposited is so thin that the touch of a camel\u2019s hair brush marks it perceptibly.\nThe prepared disc is placed on a revolving plate so that its surface is touched by the point of the recording stylus (Patent No. 534,543). As the plate revolves the recorder is made to travel toward the center ; thus its point cuts a spiral groove through the wax. The vibrations of the point make deflections in this groove. These deflections are in the plane of the surface of the plate and not dug into it as in the case of the phonograph.\nThe record disc is then placed in an etching bath similar to that used by photo-engravers (Patent No. 548,623). The part of the zinc from which the wax has been removed by the stylus is attacked by the acid and a permanent groove is made. A copper matrix is then made from this by electrolysis. The matrix contains the sound-line in relief. After the matrix has been protected by a layer of nickel, unvulcanized rubber is pressed into it. The rubber is then vulcanized in place. When removed from the matrix the rubber plate is a true copy of the original disc.\nFig. 3.\nThe later method of making record discs I know only from a study of the Letters Patent, No. 564,586. I judge, however, that it is a better method and I believe that it may be of easy application in the direct study of records by the microscope.\nIn this method a glass plate is clamped on an axis by which it can be rotated. The under-surface of the disc is carefully polished and dried","page":9},{"file":"p0010.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"IO\nE. W. Scripture,\nand is then covered with a thin film of linseed oil by means of a camel\u2019s hair brush. A smoky flame then held under the plate deposits a fine layer of lamp-black, thus forming an amorphous ink which covers the glass in an even, exceedingly thin layer. This coating of ink does not flow spontaneously and requires only a minute force to trace a line in it. The sound line is drawn by the point of the recording stylus in a manner similar to that just described. Copies of the disc are made by placing it over a sensitized photographic plate and proceeding by photo-engraving.\nTo reproduce the sound the rubber disc is placed on a plate which can be rotated by some motor power. A reproducing sound box is so arranged that the point of its stylus travels in the sound-groove. The deviations in the sound groove move the point of the stylus whereby a glass diaphragm is made to reproduce the sound waves. The reproducing sound box differs from the recording sound box chiefly in having a stiff round steel point at the end of the stylus instead of a cutting point, as shown in Fig. 3.\n2. Transcribing gramophone records.\nThe speed at which the plate travels in the record-making machine is about 70 revolutions a minute. This stretches out the curves for the speech sounds so that the variations in amplitude are visible through the microscope only in the case of musical sounds and vowels. The method of direct reading by the microscope is therefore not available. The record must be transcribed in such a way that the relation between length and height, that is between time and amplitude, shall be changed. In the method about to be used the height was enlarged while the length was decreased.\nIn the transcribing apparatus (Fig. 4 ) the gramophone plate was put on a metal disc E similar to that of the original record-making machine. This disc was rotated at a speed of o. 1 revolution a minute by a system of spur and bevel gears. The particular system used was adopted after long experimenting ; as it may be of use to others it may be profitable to briefly describe it.\nA small 110-volt Edison motor A was connected with the electric mains through an appropriate resistance. A convenient and cheap form of resistance L was found in the so-called reduction sockets for 16 c. p. lamps. These contain fine resistance wire wound on asbestos, which can be placed in circuit with the lamp to any desired extent, thereby reducing the current passing through it. An appropriate plug carrying the motor wires was placed in one of these sockets ; this socket was connected to another plug which was placed in another reduction socket ; this finally was con-","page":10},{"file":"p0011.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Fm. 4.\nA miter gear a on the axle of the motor fitted into another miter gear on the first axle of the reducing machine B. The first axle of the reducing machine thus revolved at 800 revolutions per minute. (For still finer work it has been found convenient to use a worm on the motor axle and a worm gear on the first reducing axle ; for a worm gear of n teeth the speed of the first axle is 1 /\u00ab that of the motor. ) The second axle carried a large spur gear with 160 teeth which fitted into small spur gear with 16 teeth on the first axle ; thus the second axle made 80 revolutions per minute. In a similar way gear-transmission to a third axle reduced the\nResearches in experimental phonetics.\t11\nnected to a plug placed in a socket on the main line. By moving the knobs on the reduction sockets the speed of the motor could be reduced as desired.. Finally the current was passed through a 4 c. p. lamp as a permanent resistance of 800 ohms. In making the present records the motor was adjusted to about 800 revolutions a minute.","page":11},{"file":"p0012.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"12\nE. IV. Scripture,\nspeed to 8 revolutions, and transmission to a fourth axle reduced it to 0.8 of a revolution. This fourth axle carried a spur gear of 20 teeth which fitted into the 160 teeth of the final driving machine of the disc whose axle thus made o. 1 revolution a minute.\nThe axle of the final driving mechanism carried on its further end a tube C with a longitudinal slit in it. Within this tube was a rod icm in diameter with a thread of 96 turns to the inch on its surface ; it was held by a nut correspondingly threaded. A projection from the rod fitted into the slit in the tube ; thus the rod was forced to turn with the tube. At the same time the thread on its surface forced it to move lengthwise of an inch for each revolution. The rod bore on its end a carefully centered point and just back of this point a miter gear. The point pressed against the disc-carriage. This carriage consisted of a bar of brass running on a pair of rails and carrying the metal wheel E. The metal wheel rested on the carriage and its axle projected through it. As the rod traveled forward it pushed the carriage ahead of it. At the bottom of the axle there was a second miter gear D bearing against the first one on the rod ; this turned the metal wheel in unison with the rod. When a gramophone plate was clamped on the wheel with proper centering, it was turned once in 10 minutes and was driven forward radially of an inch per revolution. Thus the speech curve on a plate would travel steadily under a fixed point from beginning to end.\nJust above the disc the amplifying lever F was adjusted so that the soft steel point rested in the sound groove. The distance from the fulcrum to the point was 2 2mm. The lever possessed side movement in order to transcribe the curve, and vertical movement in order to follow the changes in the thickness of the plate. The long arm of the lever reached 595\u2122\u201c beyond the fulcrum. The extreme part of it consisted of a recording point of pendulum ribbon M152\u201d\u201c\u201c long. This point traced the side movement on the smoked paper and also yielded to the up and down fluctuations without any noticeable effect on the records. The amplification was approximately 27 times.\nIt was afterwards found desirable to replace the simple supporting adjustments of the steel point by an adjusting standard such as is used in ordinary laboratory work. The point could be raised or lowered by a rack and pinion and adjusted sidewise by a small screw. The vertical movement was convenient for regulating the pressure of the recording points on the drum ; the rubber gramophone plates varied in thickness and would consequently raise the point more at one side than the other. This variation has been avoided in the most recently made plates.\nThe centering of the gramophone plate was not an easy matter. The","page":12},{"file":"p0013.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n13\nspeech curve was made in the form of a spiral around the center of rotation in the original machine ; neither the edge of the rubber disc with the record nor the hole in its center coincided with this center. To center the spiral accurately on the metal plate two methods could be used. The microscope method proved somewhat the more convenient. The metal disc was moved away from the point of the rod. A microscope or a large magnifying glass was fixed so that it was focussed on the spiral groove. As the disc was turned the groove passed through the field of vision. If the plate was not centered, it would move to one side or the other during one half a revolution ; it was adjusted by the fingers until the groove did not appear to move back and forth with every turn, but to maintain a steady side movement amounting to once the width between lines for one revolution. The other method consisted in turning the disc with the recording point adjusted and noting the deviation to one side for one half a revolution. The disc was then moved radially until the point marked one half the deviation. If this was properly done, the point would show no deviation as the disc is turned.\nThe steel point was pressed into the groove of the plate by means of the rubber band on the thread b ; the verticality of the pressure was assured by the plumb line C.\nThe record was made on smoked paper moved by the Bai.tzar kymograph K in the usual way with side movement of the drum by the driving mechanism G.\nThere were such minor adjustments of recording points, levers, etc., as were requisite for accuracy and convenience. To avoid jarring through the floor the table was at a later date suspended from the ceiling by wires. The jarring of the motor was avoided by placing it on sand. The slight variations in the potential of the city current did not appreciably affect the record.\nIn the laborious work of transcribing these records I was greatly aided by Mr. Minosuke Yamaguchi.\nThe records were measured with a scale graduated in ioths of a millimeter under a watchmaker\u2019s eye-glass or under a magnifying glass. Thus o. i\u201cm was the unit of measurement. This represented an interval of time of 0.003^-', or 0.3^. In the case of regularly repeated vibrations the determination could be made still finer by measuring a long series of vibrations. In the calculations only the tenth of a millimeter was used. The tenths of a sigma in the results may be out by one or two units ; thus a series of vibrations recorded as 2.2.ia, 1.9\", 1.9*, etc., would be possibly more correctly given as 2.i<r, 2.0\u00b0', 1.90', 1.9\u00b0', etc. These steps disappear in the plotted curves of results which were drawn smoothly by aid of rubber curves.","page":13},{"file":"p0014.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"14\nE. W. Scripture,\nThe calculation was aided by Zimmermann\u2019s Rechentafeln and a table of reciprocals. Thus millimeter measurements were turned into periods of vibration by using the table for 35, and frequencies were found by taking the reciprocal of the period.\nThe reproductions of speech curves in this study were obtained by having the originals photographed, with an enlargement of four times, directly on a wooden block ; the engraver then cut the line with his tool. As some of the finer details were necessarily lost in this way, the attempt was made to get larger amplification in the records. Six months of unsuccessful work with compound levers were followed by an attempt (Dec., 1899) with a single very long lever of straw having the fulcrum close to one end and the recording point of glass. This method gives most beautiful curves of the greatest delicacy; they are as large as the curves shown in the figures for ai, etc. below and can be reproduced directly by zinc etching. This method is being used for further researches. Many other improvements have also been lately introduced.\nIn addition to the illustrations produced by photography and cutting by the engraver, others have been made by drawing with the free hand on a very large scale the curve as seen through the magnifying glass ; in this way the finer details could be brought out with great accuracy.\nII. The diphthong ai found in the words /, eye, die, fly, thy.\nThe words first studied in the present case are those of William F. Hooly, a trained speaker, reciting the nursery-rhyme entitled \u201c The Sad Story of the Death and the Burial of Poor Cock Robin. \u2019 \u2019 The record is contained on the plate numbered 6015 made by the National Gramophone Company of New York. As it is impossible to get any definite idea of how the words actually sound except by putting the plate in the gramophone, I will try to indicate some of the characteristics of the words heard.\nMr. Hooly speaks in what appears to be the normal American accent in the neighborhood of New York except in two respects : 1. he makes an unusual effort at distinctness ; 2. he recites in the manner frequently adopted by adults in speaking to children\u2014a manner that I am able to characterize only as having an excess of expressiveness and melodiousness.\nThe record on the gramophone plate, as far as it has been traced off, reads as follows :\nNow, children, draw your little chairs nearer so that you can see the pretty pictures and Uncle Will will read to you the sad story of the death and the burial of poor Cock Robin.","page":14},{"file":"p0015.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\niS\nWho killed Cock Robin ?\nI, said the sparrow,\nWith my bow and arrow.\nI killed Cock Robin.\nWho saw him die ?\nI, said the fly,\nWith my little eye I saw him die.\nWho caught his blood ?\nI, said the fish,\nWith my little dish I caught his blood.\nWho\u2019ll make his shroud ?\nI, said the beetle,\nWith my thread and needle I\u2019ll make his shroud.\nWho\u2019ll be the parson ?\nI, said the rook,\nWith my little book I\u2019ll be the parson.\nWho\u2019ll dig his grave ?\nI, said the owl,\nWith my spade and trowel I\u2019ll dig his grave.\nWho\u2019ll carry the link ?\nI, said the linnet,\nI\u2019ll fetch it in a minute.\nI\u2019ll carry the link.\nTo extend the treatment to prose some cases of 1 were studied in another record by Mr. William F. Hoolf.y, entitled \u201cGladstone\u2019s Advice on Self-Help and Thrift,\u201d being record number 6014 of the gramophone series. The speech runs as follows :\n\u201cLadies and gentlemen, the purpose of the meeting on the 14th instant may, I can say, be summed up in a very few words : self-help and thrift.\u201d\nTwo examples of this diphthong were also studied in the word thy, as it appears in record number 668 Z (name of speaker not given), which runs as follows :\nOur Father, which art in Heaven ; hallowed be Thy name, Thy kingdom come . . .\nIn order to get some idea of the relation between the character of the vibrations and the mental character of the word I have recorded judgments","page":15},{"file":"p0016.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"i6\nE. IV. Scripture,\nas to how the words appear to the ear. The statements are given with appended initials in the accounts of the various words ; the persons observing were : (O), Hanns Oertel ; (E. M. C.), Miss E. M. Comstock; (E. W. S.), E. W. Scripture.\nai in the word / (first example).\nThe first occurrence of ai is in the verse /, said the sparrow.\nA reproduction of the curve for this word is given in Fig. 5. As explained on p. 14, some of the details are lost in making the figure and others are not quite correctly given ; the original curve is much sharper and clearer.\nFig. 5.\nThis word I occupies an interval of 452\u00b0\t= o.ooi\u2019). It is pre-\nceded by a silent interval of 770', or about ^ of a second ; this is the full stop in the stanza after the question is asked and before the answer is given, indicated by ? in print. It is followed by a silent interval of 21ov, indicated in print by a comma.\nBeginning.\u2014The beginning of the a is apparently clear, that is, it is not preceded by any breathing. The vocal cords are apparently adjusted for voice production before the expiration begins ; the vowel starts with a light vibration of the cords. There is no explosive sound, or glottal catch, before the vowel.\nPitch.\u2014Beginning with a period of 180', the cord tone changes slowly through 11, 10, 9, 8, 7\u00b0-, reaching 6a at the nth vibration, 50, at the 15th, 4\u201d at the 30th ; the period of 4\" is maintained to about the 100th vibration, after which it falls slightly to 4.2\u201d during the last 7 vibrations. In other words, the pitch glides slowly upward from a tone of 56 complete vibrations per second to one of 200 per second, then more slowly to one","page":16},{"file":"p0017.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n17\nof 250 per second, at which pitch it remains constant except for a slight drop as the diphthong ends. Fig. 6 shows the course of the pitch-changes\nFig. 6.\nduring this word. The horizontal axis in this figure, as well as in all similar ones, represents time. The point x == o is taken at the moment of the first vibration and the sound curve is supposed to be laid along the praxis. At each point on this axis at which the curve shows a cord vibration to begin an ordinate is erected, inversely proportional to the time from this moment to the beginning of the previous vibration, that is, to the frequency of the cord vibration at that point. By an oversight the figures 300 and 400 have been interchanged.\nFormation.\u2014A drawing of the first three vibrations is given in Fig. 7 ; the dots indicate intervals of \\a.\nFig. 7.\nThe vowel a begins with a movement of the vocal cords by which an extremely weak puff of air is emitted. This puff of air passing through the resonance-chamber of the mouth arouses 3 or 4 vibratory oscillations of air contained in the chamber. There is first a half oscillation of weak amplitude, then a comparatively strong oscillation, followed by very weak ones. Even the strongest is, however, very weak; the following oscillations are so weak as to be hardly perceptible. The resonance vibrations disappear and there is an interval of silence before the second puff appears. Then the cords emit another puff of air a trifle stronger than the first, the time from puff to puff being i8ff. The 6 resonance vibrations are slightly stronger than before. The period of silence is shorter than before. The third puff occurs 1 ia after the second one. The","page":17},{"file":"p0018.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"i8\nE. IV. Scripture,\nresonance vibrations are a trifle stronger still ; there are 7 of them with a brief interval of silence. The fourth puff begins at iotr after the beginning of the third one. The fourth puff contains 8 resonance vibrations, all slightly stronger than before ; there is no interval of silence because the fifth puff begins just as the last resonance vibration of the fourth puff ends. The interval occupied by the fourth puff is The end of the fourth puff, the whole of the fifth puff and the beginning of the sixth are shown greatly enlarged in the drawing, Fig. 8.\nFic. 8.\nIt is a characteristic trait of this particular a that the vibration is strongest at the start ; this indicates a sudden and complete opening of the cords. The quickest opening requires, however, a little time and there must be a measureable change from no passage of air to full passage ; this is shown by the weak half of the first resonance vibration preceding the large half. The form of vibration may possibly be held to indicate a complete closure of the cords whereby they actually touch each other. This is supposed to be a characteristic of spoken vowels as distinguished from sung vowels. The a sung by Hermann1 shows a gradual rise and fall of intensity such as would arise from a free vibration of the cords without touching of their edges. Spoken vowels, however, may be also produced by free vibrations of the cords as in the case of the / analyzed below (P- 25>-\nIn this I there appears a trace of the strong secondary resonance vibration discussed below (p. 23) ; the phenomenon is here so faint that a discussion of it is best postponed to the study of the 2d example of /. The resonance tone indicated by it has a period of 3^4a, or a frequency of 286; this is approximately the note shown in Fig. 9.\tr\nThe resonance vibration in the first part of the word M I\t=\nhas a period of ia or a frequency of 1000. Its pitch is y \u2014 approximately as indicated in Fig. 10.\tFiu. 10.\n1 Hermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, IV., Untersuchungen mittels des neuen Edison'sehen Phonographen, Arch. f. d. ges. Fhysiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1893 LUI Tafel II.\nHermann, IVeilere Untersuchungen \u00bb. d. Wesen d. Pocale, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1895 LXI Tafel V.\niip\nFiO. y.","page":18},{"file":"p0019.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n19\nAs the period of the cord tone becomes shorter, the number of resonance vibrations to each period becomes smaller. Beyond the 30th period of the cord tone the resonance vibrations show a lengthening of period. In the 39th cord vibration the resonance tone reaches a period of 2.2\u201d or a frequency of about 450 ; it thus falls more than an octave in the time of 9 cord vibrations, or, in this case, in $1?. Here the resonance tone is nearly but not quite of the same period as the octave, 2\u201d, of the cord tone, 4ff. This change is shown in the hand-drawing, Fig. 11, which be-\nFig. ii.\ngins with the 31st vibration. This relation between resonance tone and cord tone is maintained to the end of the word ; it produces the peculiar alternation of waves seen in the last two vibrations in Fig. 11.\nThe vibrations up to the 31st unquestionably belong to the a. In the vibrations beyond the 39th both the cord tone and the resonance tone are constant, except for a slight fall at the end. They unquestionably belong to the i. The vibrations from the 31st to the 39th show a constant cord tone and a falling resonance tone. They are presumably to be considered as belonging to the \u201c glide.\u201d During the a the cords have been stretched more and more until at the 31st vibration they reach the tension required for the i; the only further change necessary is the lowering of the resonance tone.\nBeyond the portion shown in Fig. 11 the curve shows strong vibrations so nearly alike that one is naturally induced to consider each one a cord vibration, as shown in Fig. 13. This would not be the proper way because close inspection shows that succeeding vibrations differ slightly, while alternate ones are alike. This likeness of all the resonance vibrations in the fas contrasted with the a is probably also due to a difference in the action of the cords ; this difference appears more clearly in the word eye analyzed below, and the discussion is postponed to that point.\nWith the understanding that no definite limit can properly be made between one sound and the neighboring one in this case, we may, on account of the foregoing consideration, consider the a to have occupied the time 203ff ending with the 30th vibration, the glide to have occupied 33ff ending with the 38th vibration and the i to have occupied the remaining 216*.","page":19},{"file":"p0020.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"20\nE. W. Scripture,\nThe resonance tone of the i is one of about 450 vibrations per second, or about that in Fig. 12.\nThis resonance tone is much lower than the very high tone assigned to i by Hermann and others but is not so low as those assigned by some other observers. There is, however, the possibility of different tones in the vowels from different speakers and also that of several resonances in the same vowel. In careful examination of the curves I find them often marked by small additional vibrations. These are frequently quite prominent\ni\u00fc;\nFig. 12.\nFig. 13.\nin the i of ai. Their fineness rendered it impossible to settle on any definite facts regarding them. In the drawing, Fig. 13, I have tried to give some idea of how the curve of the i might appear if freed from the defects of tracing. It is impossible to assign any period to these small vibrations ; the regularity in the drawing was adopted for purely mechanical reasons.\nThe changes of the cord tone and the resonance tones are indicated in a general way in Fig. 14.\nAmplitude.\u2014The amplitude of a vibration is the distance from the position of equilibrium to the extreme position on either side; it is thus one-half the difference in altitude between the crest and the trough of a wave. The course of change in amplitude is given in Fig. 15. The horizontal axis represents time as explained for Fig. 6. The vertical axis represents amplitude.\nThe initial resonance vibration of the first puff of this a has an amplitude of less than o.imm. This slowly increases to o.3mra at the 20th vibration after which it remains practically constant to the 38th. Beyond\nFig. 14.\n...... Upper resonance tone.\n-------Lower resonance tone.\n-------Cord tone.","page":20},{"file":"p0021.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n21\nthe 38th, that is, from the beginning of the i, the amplitude rapidly increases from 0.3\u201c\"' to 0.7\u201d\u201d\u201d at the 50th vibration; thereafter it slowly sinks, becoming 0.3\"\"\" at the 60th vibration and 0.2\u201d\u2019\"\u2019 at the 80th, o.im\u201d\nat the 88th and o at the 96th. The vibrations of the i just beyond the 50th, or the maximum of the /, are shown in Fig. 13 ; in this figure two of the large vibrations belong to one cord vibration.\nThe maximum for the / is 2^ times that for the a.\nEnding.\u2014The word ai ends by a gradual cessation of the expiratory impulse with hardly a noticeable change in the tension of the vocal cords ; this is the clear ending usual in English. The slight fall in pitch of the 1 toward the end indicates a change that may be apparent in the auditory effect of the word, although it cannot be distinguished separately. It is probably due to a relaxation of the cords.\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014To the ear the sound of this word / appears from the record \u201ccolorless, without emotion, without inflectional rise or fall within the word, a monotone\u2019\u2019 (O.) ; \u201c a mild statement\u2019\u2019 (E. W. S.).\nThe mildness of this word seems related to its length and its gradual changes in pitch and intensity.\nai in the word / (second example).\nThe second case of the word / occurs in the sentence I killed Cock Robin.\nThe complete reproduction of the curve is given in Fig. 16. The first five puffs are shown enlarged in the drawing, Fig. 17.\nThis word occupies an interval of 334'. It is preceded by a silent interval of 420*, or nearly half a second ; this considerable interval would indicate a full stop. The words With my bozo and arrozo seem therefore in the thought of the speaker to belong to the previous I. The thought seems best indicated by a period after arrozo-, thus, I, said the.sparrow, 101th my bozo and arrow. I killed, etc. This second I is followed by","page":21},{"file":"p0022.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"E. IV Scripture,\nan interval of about 125er before any trace of the following sound can be found.\n\n/WM'VvVVWWWWvvviaaaa/v/vvvvwv/wwv/wvwx^^.\nFig. 16.\nFig. 17.\nBeginning.\u2014Similar to that of the ist /, p. 16. The first five vibrations are shown in the drawing, Fig. 17.\nPitch.\u2014Beginning with a period of 12er, the cord tone changes steadily through 9, 8, 8, 7, 7, 6, 6, 6, 6, 5, 5> 5> 5> 5> 5> 5> 4> 4> 4> 4> 4> 4> 4> etc., to the 48th vibration after which it slowly falls to 4.4er at the 70th. The course of the pitch-change is shown in Fig. 18 ; the plotting is done in the manner described for Fig. 6.\nFig. 18.\nFormation.\u2014The formation of the a is apparently the same as in the preceding case ; the secondaries indicate a resonance tone of 1000, as in Fig. 10. At the distance of i'/P beyond the beginning of the vibration","page":22},{"file":"p0023.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n23\nthere is another large oscillation markedly greater than the other secondaries, as shown in the drawing Fig. 18. This large secondary keeps at the same time behind the primary. As the pitch of the cord tone rises, the primary resonance vibrations come closer together ; the large secondary, being at a constant interval behind the preceding primary, thus comes steadily closer to the following primary until it disappears in it. A drawing of two such vibrations is given in Fig. 19.\nFio. 19.\nI do not believe that this larger secondary is due to an overtone-vibration of the cords. A stretched string or a reed may vibrate primarily as a whole, secondarily in halves, thirds, and so forth, producing the fundamental tone and its overtones. As the tension of the string or reed is increased, the fundamental tone rises in pitch and its overtones must do so likewise. For example, a string or a reed that vibrates in halves in addition to its fundamental vibration, will continue to vibrate in halves as the tension is changed. The curves for this vowel do not represent such a vibration. The strong secondary keeps at the same distance after the preceding primary while the distance to the following primary steadily decreases.\nTwo explanations of this phenomenon may be proposed.\nIt might be suggested that the primary and the strong secondary may represent two waves of a lower resonance while the primary and the other secondaries represent the waves of a higher resonance ; this resonance would have a period of 3 or a frequency of about 286. The note corresponding to this tone is shown in Fig. 9. It would require a rather large cavity to resonate to such a low tone. Such a cavity may perhaps arise from the pharynx and mouth acting as a single resonator of great length. There would then be at least three tones present in the a : the rising cord tone, the lower resonance tone of 286, which finally coincides with the cord tone, and the higher resonance tone of 1000.\nAnother explanation that may at least be considered is that the strong secondary arises from a flap-like action of the cords. The closure of the glottis across the air-current brings about a vibration of the edges, producing a tone whose pitch depends upon the tension of the edges. The edges can be assumed to vibrate as wholes in the manner of stretched","page":23},{"file":"p0024.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"24\nE. IV. Scripture,\nstrings. As the tension is increased, the pitch rises. In addition to this the tissue stretching from the edges to the walls may also vibrate in unison with the edges, but just as in the case of a piece of cloth attached to a string, it may be assumed to execute an additional flap owing to the first impulse being reflected from the further walls to which the membrane is attached. If we assume that the tension of this tissue (Musculus thyreo-arytenoideus) remains constant during the vowel, this membranous flap would be independent of the tension of the cords and would follow it at a constant interval. This flap would impress itself with the air current and thus produce a stronger resonance vibration at a constant interval after the primary resonance vibration. On the assumption that the regular repetition of a sound produces a tone, the large secondary would combine with the preceding primary to produce a tone with a period of 3.5* or a frequency of about 286. Likewise it would combine with the following primary to produce a tone of changing pitch ; this tone would start with a period of 5.6* or a frequency of about 178 and rise steadily in pitch till it disappeared.\nThe lowering of the resonance tone can be clearly seen at the 12th vibration just as at the 31st in the preceding case, although it may possibly begin earlier ; it is finished at the 28th. Thus, So0, can be assigned as the time occupied by the a, 70\" by the glide and 184 \u201d by the i.\nThe resonance tone of the i has a period of 1.8er or a frequency of about 555 ; this is approximately the note shown in Fig. 20.\nFig. 20. The smaller vibrations are also present as mentioned on\np. 20.\nThe changes of the three tones in this vowel are indicated in Fig. 21.\nAmplitude.\u2014The maximum amplitude in the first vibration is less than o. imm ; it increases steadily to 0.4\"\"\" at the end of the a.\nBeyond the 25th vibration the amplitude begins to increase ; it reaches a maximum of 0.6\"\"\u201d at the 31st vibration. Thereafter it decreases rather rapidly, becoming o.2nmi at the 45th vibration and fading away gradually to o after the 75th. If the vibrations from the 12th to the 30th are to be considered as the glide, the maximum occurs just after the beginning of the i.\nThe / is thus weaker throughout than in the previous case ; its maximum amplitude is also slightly less. Owing to the loudness of the\n1er resonance tone. \u25a0 Lower resonance tone. \u2022 Cord tone.","page":24},{"file":"p0025.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t25\na, the maximum amplitude of the i in this case is only 1 y times that of the a.\nThe course of change in amplitude is shown in Fig. 22 ; the plotting is done in the manner described for Fig. 15.\nEnding.\u2014Similar to that of the ist / p. 21.\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014To the car this I is \u201cshorter than the ist /; more emphatic\u201d (O.); \u201cthe word is spoken emphatically and boldly \u201d (E. W. S.).\nThe emphatic character of the word may arise from its shortness, the loudness of the a, the quick fall of the i, or from other causes not determined.\nai in the word I (third example).\nThe third example of /occurs in the words /, said the fly.\nThis word occupies an interval of 598\u00b0. It is preceded by a long silent interval of 560^, or over y of a second, indicating the full stop after the question has been asked. It is followed by a silent interval of 200\", or I of a second, indicated in print by a comma.\nBeginning.\u2014The first strong resonance vibration is preceded by 4 very small secondaries, Fig. 23. This would indicate that the expiration be-\nFic. 23.\ngan before the cords had closed for their first explosion but that the mouth was already in position for the vowel. Such a brief passage of air through the mouth before the cords began to vibrate would cause the resonance tone to be heard for a brief instant before the cord tone began. In this case the resonance tone began 4 thousandths of a second before the cord tone. This can hardly be considered as an extremely brief","page":25},{"file":"p0026.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"26\nE. IF. Scripture,\naspirate, or h; the time is too short, s0', for any perception of the sound distinct from the rest of the vowel.\nIt is quite possible that this manner of beginning a vowel may be that called by Ellis and Sweet a \u201cgradual glott^d\u201d and by Silvers a \u201c lightly breathed beginning. \u201d \u201c In this the cord opening passes through the positions for toneless breath and whispering before the cord tone begins, whereas the really strong impulse of expiration begins only at the moment when the voice itself sounds.\u201d1\nPitch.\u2014Beginning with a period of 7.7^(131 vibrations per second) it rises to 7\" at the 8th vibration to at the 13th, to 5* (200 vibrations)\n5oo-\nFig. 24.\nat the 20th, slowly to 3.8* (250 vibrations) at the 40th after which it remains constant to the 70th. Thereafter it falls slowly to 4.2\u201d at the end. The course of change in pitch is shown in Fig. 24, which is plotted in the manner described for Fig. 6.\nFormation.\u2014The primary and secondary resonance vibrations are present in the a as in the previous cases but the secondary vibrations are relatively stronger in this case. This would indicate a more gradual opening of the cords; not so much of the energy of the puff is expended at the start, and some qf it is reserved to carry the reasonance longer. There is no silent interval within the puff.\nIn the greater part of the curve the secondary vibrations in the a differ in form from those of the previous cases. They take a form that would indicate a series of partial tones differing from each other in phase by y as shown in the drawing, Fig. 25.\nSome of the curves for the other cases of I appear of the simple pendular harmonic form, but many of them show tendencies toward forms with the overtones differing in phase by l/A. Those that resemble the cases of difference by o and cannot be distinguished from simple curves\n1 Silvers, Grunds\u00e4ge der Phonetik, 4. Auf!., 140, Leipzig 1893.","page":26},{"file":"p0027.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n27\non the small scale of the records. According to Hermann the differences in phase produce no differences in the tone heard.1 I note this particular vowel, however, as its curve differs from the others. The different forms\nFig. 25.\nfor different cases of / presumably indicate differences in the shape of the mouth.\nThe curve in this a presents great irregularities ; they are all explainable, however, from the gradually rising pitch of the puffs whereby the number of resonance vibrations is gradually reduced as in the previous cases.\nJust as in the previous cases the resonance tone begins to change while the cord tone is constant. The change begins somewhere around the ' 40th vibration and proceeds rather rapidly to the 50th. Thus 217er can be assigned to the a, 46 to the glide and 335^ to the i.\nThe resonance tone for the a has, as before (p. 18), a period of 1 or a frequency of 1000 (Fig. 10). The resonance tone beyond the 50th vibration\u2014which we may consider as the beginning of the i\u2014has a period of 2.off, or a frequency of 500, or approximately as indicated in Fig. 26.\nThe resonance tone remains constant for about 20 vibrations of the i and then slowly falls with the cord tone to about 2.2\u201d at the end. The resonance tone of the i is very closely the octave of the cord tone.\nThe resonance vibrations of the a show a fairly strong secondary (p. 23) at 3.5\" after the beginning. This would indicate a tone with a frequency of 286.\nOn the first hypothesis (p. 23) this would be the lower resonance tone, Fig.\n9. On the second hypothesis it would be the constant flap tone ; the changing flap tone would begin also with period of about 3,5\u00b0', and rise in pitch rapidly.\n1 Hermann, Beitr\u00e4ge zur Lehre v. d. Klcmgwahmehmung, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LXV 467.\nFig. 27.\n......Upper resonance tone.\n-------Lower resonance tone.\n-------Cord tone.\ni\u00fci\nFig. 26.","page":27},{"file":"p0028.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"28\nE. IF. Scripture,\nThe changes in the tones of this vowel are indicated in Fig. 27.\nAmplitude.\u2014The amplitude of the maximum resonance vibration in the a is less than o.imm in the first vibration; it gradually increases to 0.4\"\"\u201c and remains constant to the end of the a and through the glide.\nAfter the glide the amplitude rises with moderate rapidity to o.6ram at the \u00d62d vibration. I hereafter the amplitude falls more evenly and slowly to o than in the second example.\nThe course of change in amplitude is indicated in Fig. 28 ; the plotting is done in the manner described for Fig. 15.\nFig. 28.\nThe amplitude of the a in this example closely resembles that in the 2d example ; the i is also similar but its rise is more gradual and its fall more sudden. The amplitude throughout this example is a trifle less than in the first one. The maximum for the / is 1% times that for the a.\nEnding.\u2014As on p. 21.\nRelation between curi'e and color.\u2014To the ear this / is \u201clike the 2d but longer; a little more self-assertive \u201d (O.); \u201c spoken rather emphatically ; like the 2d example rather than the first\u201d (E. W. S.).\nThe maintenance of the pitch of the i may have something to do with this assertiveness.\nai in the word / (fourth example).\nThe fourth occurrence of /is in the line I saw him die. It occupies an interval of sso'; the word is thus shorter than any of the previous examples.\nIt is preceded by a silent interval of 165\u00b0-, which is shorter than the similar interval before I killed. The speaker evidently feels that the words With my little eye belong to the following words I saw in making a sentence ; thus no mark of punctuation should be placed after the word eye. This view is supported by the existence of a pause of 385* before the word With. In the previous stanza there was a pause of 7 7o'7 after the words With my bow and arrow and of o (zero !) before them, that is, between sparrow and with. In that stanza the","page":28},{"file":"p0029.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n29\nspeaker evidently felt the phrase beginning with With to belong to the preceding / and not to the following one. Both stanzas have been punctuated on p. 15 in accordance with these views.\nThe tracing of the / is followed by a straight line for 200' ; this time includes the pause after the /and the time of the s of saw.\nBeginning.\u2014The first primary resonance vibration of the a is preceded by several secondaries (see Fig. 30); the beginning thus resembles that of the 3d example, p. 25\nSoo-\n/oo-\nFig. 29.\nPitch.\u2014Beginning with a period of 9er it rises steadily through 8, 8, 7, 7, 7, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 5, 5\u00bb 4, 4, 4, \u2014 4 (at the 28th), to $y2 at the 35th ; this pitch is maintained practically unchanged to the end. In regard to pitch also this a closely resembles that of the 2d example but it is throughout a little higher. Starting with a frequency of about hi it Vises to about 286 and maintains this. The course of change in pitch is shown *n Fig. 29, which is plotted in the manner described for Fig. 6.\nFormation.\u2014The first three vibrations are shown in the drawing Fig. 30.3 The motion of the cords is seen to be free and gradual as in the\nFig. 30.\nthird example, p. 26 and Fig. 23. The resonance vibrations in the a resemble those in the 2d example in having one of the secondaries stronger than the others. This secondary maintains its place in respect to the preceding primary resonance vibration with about 3.5er between them. As the puffs come more rapidly, the primaries come more closely in succes-s|on, cutting off the secondaries at the end in the usual way (p. 17). Thus the larger secondary comes steadily nearer to the following primary while maintaining its constant distance from the preceding primary.","page":29},{"file":"p0030.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"30\nE. IV. Scripture,\nIf the primary resonance vibration and the strong secondary following it indicate a tone, the period of the tone will be about 3.5er and the frequency about 286. If a tone is to be considered as being formed by the interval from the strong secondary to the following primary, it would begin at about 4.5er, or a frequency of 220, and would rise in pitch till it is extinguished. In this respect this a closely resembles that in the 2d example of I (p. 23).\nIt is peculiar to this / that the cord tone rises during the a to the pitch of the lower resonance tone 286 and that the i keeps this pitch for the cord tone.\nThe upper resonance tone of the a has at the start a period of a little over Ier or a frequency a little less than 1000. The lowering of the resonance\ntone may begin at the start but it cannot be detected until about the 30th vibration, owing possibly to the unusual complexity of the curve in this case. Shortly before the 40th vibration it reaches 1.50', and at about the 48th i.8ff. Around the 50th it reaches 2.1\u201d', at the 65th about 2.5*; after this there is scarcely any fall to the end.\nThe changes in the tones of this vowel are indicated in Fig. 31.\nAmplitude.\u2014The maximum amplitude in the first vibration is less than o. iram; it increases rapidly to 0.3 in the 6th vibration, reaches 0.4J4 at the 17th, decreases to 0.2at the 28th and remains with no noticeable variation from this till the 35th. In all previous cases the a has steadily increased in intensity; here we have a rise and a fall.\nIn the i the amplitude rises quickly from 0.3 to 0.7 at the 42d vibration of the word ( 7th of the i ) after which it sinks quickly to 0.3 at the 45th and thereafter more slowly to the end. Such a quick fall of intensity is not found in any of the preceding cases of /. The loud part of the / is shorter than in the previous cases. The maximum amplitude is reached at its 13th vibration, where it is 1 ^ times that of the a.\nThe course of the change in amplitude is given in Fig. 32, which is plotted in the manner described for Fig. 15.\nKic. 32.\nFig. 31.\n.......Upper resonance tone.\n-------Lower resonance tone.\n-------Cord tone.","page":30},{"file":"p0031.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t31\nEnding.\u2014The i ends with a steady fall in intensity without noticeable change in pitch.\nRelation between curve and color. \u2014To the ear the word seems to be spoken \u201clike the 3d/\u201d (O.) ; \u201ctriumphantly\u201d (E. W. S.). The emphatic or triumphant character of the word may be due to its shortness. The high pitch of the word and the relation of tones arising from the strong secondary may also be elements tending to make the word emphatic.\nai in the word / (further examples).\nNine further cases of / were studied, making thirteen in all. In general the fundamental characteristics of the four cases already considered were found in all the rest. Some peculiarities, however, are to be noted.\nSometimes the first vibration of the a is shorter than the following one. This occurs, for example, in /\u2019// make his shroud, and I\u2019II be the parson. In the former case the periods are 9.8*, 11.6\", 10.9\", 9.8\", etc., and in the latter 8.1er, 10. 5er, 9.8er, 8.8a, 8.8V, 8.x\"7, etc. The cords seem to receive an excess of tension before the breath begins and to be then relaxed to the tension desired. This suggests the possibility that in all cases of / the tension of the cords may be made greater than desired and that it is adjusted by relaxation before the breathing begins. There are two ways of reaching an adjustment of any muscular force, one by increasing the force upward until it reaches the proper point and the other by making an excessive increase and then relaxing. This latter method is familiar in many activities. I merely suggest its possibility in speech ; I see no reason for supposing it to be the method employed in the cases of / that do not show it in the records.\nAnother peculiarity lies in the ending. Most cases of i in / fade slowly away in intensity while a slight fall in pitch takes place. In the case of / in / caught his blood, the vibrations reach a maximum in the early part of the i as usual and thereafter decrease in amplitude ; but instead of steadily decreasing to zero they are rather suddenly cut off at a point 560, beyond the maximum, at which point the amplitude is about i that of the maximum. Beyond this point there are still some faint vibrations in the tracing during a time of about iov, after which the tracing is straight. The straight tracing represents the /\u2019-sound in the word caught ; the faint vibrations correspond to the glide during which the cords are still vibrating but the mouth is changing from the /-position to the /'-position. The condition seems to correspond to what may be called a \u201c sharp cut off \u201d to the vowel (Kudelka : \u201c stark geschnittener Accent\u201d1) in contrast with the \u201cfading end\u201d to the cases of I above.\n1 SlEVERS, Grundz\u00fcge der Phonetik, 4. Aufl., 204 Leipzig 1893.","page":31},{"file":"p0032.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"32\nE. IV. Scripture,\nIn the case of / in /\u2019// make his shroud there is also no fading away ; i passes into 'll and 'll into in without any break, although a fluctuation in amplitude takes place.\nIn one case the fall of the upper resonance tone appears to take place from the very beginning of the word ; the resonance tone is thus steadily falling while the cord tone is steadily rising. This occurs in the a of / in /, said the fish. The period of the resonance tone begins with i. 4\u00b0, reaches 1.5er at about the 10th vibration, i.8\u00b0- at the 40th vibration and then remains constant to the end of the word. The typical a form is lost in the curve at this point, namely the 40th vibration, or 228^ after the beginning ; the typical i form appears clearly after the 45th vibration, justifying us presumably in assigning 19\u00bb to the glide and 24off to the i.\nai in the word / (prose example).\nThis occurs in the words may, I can say, be summed up in a very few words of the prose speech given on p. 15.\nIt occupies an interval of 35417. It is preceded by a silent interval of not over 16\u00b0 ; the preceding sound is ay of may which fades away slowly and may occupy in extreme faintness some of this interval. It is followed by a line showing no vibrations through an interval of 700' ; this represents undoubtedly the gutteral k in the word can which seems to follow the I without pause as in the case mentioned on p. 31, yet the k does not cut off the 1 suddenly in this case as is shown by a study of the amplitude (p. 34 and Fig. 40).\nBeginning.\u2014Very faint but apparently clear, as on p. 16.\nPitch.\u2014The successive periods are 9.8, 8.4, 7.0, 6.7, 6.0, 6.0, 6.3, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.0, 6.3, 6.7, 6.7, 6.7, 6.7, 6.3, 6.3, 6.3, 5.6 at the 20th\n5oo-\nt oo-\nFig. 33.\nvibratjpn; after this the period remains constant at 5.60- to the 68th vibration at the end of the word. This is indicated in Fig. 33, which is plotted in the manner described for Fig. 6.","page":32},{"file":"p0033.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n33\nFormation.\u2014In general the curve resembles those with the strong secondary but with the difference that this secondary occurs at a smaller interval, 2.8ff, after the primary. As the primary has a period of i.o17, this produces the peculiar curve of which one vibration, is shown in the drawing, Fig. 34. This secondary is almost as strong as the primary in the early part of the a, but is lost sight of at a later point in the curve, possibly by coming into some relation to the upper resonance tone.\nFig. 34.\nThis difference from the previous cases would indicate some difference in the resonance adjustment of the mouth or in the action of the cords ; it may possibly have something to do with the parenthetical character of the phrase.\nThe tone represented by the interval between the strong secondary and the preceding primary is constant at 2.8\u00b0' or about 360, or approximately the note shown in Fig. 35. The resonance tone of the a starts at i.o^ or 1000, as in the first example, p. 18, being indicated approx-\u201e___________ imately in Fig. 10.\n\u2014 ~ At about the 17th cord vibration the resonance tone \u2018XT Ti\tbegins to fall in pitch. As its period becomes longer, it\nFk.. 35.\tm0re nearly coincides with the period between the strong\nsecondary and the preceding primary ; the curve becomes smoother and loses the little notch after the primary. The 20th vibration is shown in the drawing, Fig. 36. The resonance tone continues to fall slowly but steadily to the end of the i, reaching 2.8* or about 360 at the end; this is, curiously enough, the pitch of the lower resonance tone of the a (Fig. 35).\nThe curve at the point where the i has fallen greatly in amplitude and the period of the resonance vibration is somewhat less than half that of the cord vibration is shown in the drawing, 1'ig- 37-\nFig. 36.\nFig. 37.\nWe are perhaps justified in placing the end of the a at the point where the resonance tone begins to fall, that is, at the 17th cord vibration ; this would give a a length of 116*.\nThe vowel i thus continues the constant pitch of the a and also the","page":33},{"file":"p0034.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"34\nE. JV Scripture,\n$\n\nFig. 38.\ndrop of the resonance tone in the glide. It is thus quite impossible to assign any limit between the glide and the i. Even the peculiar increase in amplitude that characterizes all the previous cases of fin / is here so gradual that it cannot be used to mark the limit (see Fig. 40).\nThe remarkable fall of the resonance tone from i.o<% or 1000, in the a throughout the i to its end at 2.8<r, or 360, at the end, extends over about the musical interval of a duodecime, or approximately as indicated in Fig. 38.\nThe changes in the three tones of the I are indicated in Fig. 39.\nAmplitude.\u2014The amplitude increases rather steadily at first, then rapidly in the early part of the i and falls rather more rapidly than usual to the end. This is indicated in Fig.\n40, which is plotted in the manner described for Fig. 15. The maximum amplitude for the i is about times that for the a.\nEliding.\u2014A fall of amplitude to o without any fall in pitch of the cord tone, as in the 4th example, p. 31.\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014To the ear this word is \u201c colorless, unemphatic\u201d (O.); \u201cshort, high, colorless, firm, a statement of no particular importance \u201d (E. W. S. ). It seems impossible to find any relation\nFig. 39.\n...... Upper resonance\ttone.\n\u25a0-----Lower resonance\ttone.\n------Cord tone.\nFig. 40.\nbetween these judgments and the recorded curve. Shortness was noted above (p. 31) as connected with emphasis; the unemphatic / (first example) was long and had a different curve of pitch. The very peculiar change in the resonance tone may by future collation with similar cases be found to be connected with the color of the word.\nai in the word eye.\nThe word occurs in the line With my little eye. A reproduction of the","page":34},{"file":"p0035.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n35\ncurve is given in Fig. 41 ; the first few vibrations of the a are not very satisfactorily shown in the cut.\nFig. 41.\nIt occupies an interval 556er. It follows immediately on the last vibration of the / in the word little. The three words my little eye are here spoken with no separation. It is interesting, in passing, to consider the possibility that this fusion of the three words go parallel to a fusion of thought. It is evident from the very tone of the speaker that he is thinking of one thing, a certain eye, and that the facts of mine and smallness are not of any particular account to him.\nThe word eye is followed by a pause of 165er before the word / ( see p. 2S) which does not seem sufficient to justify a comma.\nBeginning.\u2014The faint vibrations of l in little die away just before the first primary resonance vibration of eye appears. The a begins as in /, ist example, p. 16.\nPitch.\u2014The vibrations of the preceding / decrease in amplitude until the line shows only a faint wavering. The first indication of a is a single resonance vibration on the line; this is repeated after 2.5ff, and again after 3.9\". From this point the a curve clearly appears. It slowly falls in pitch to a period of 4.2\u00b0' at the 20th vibration, 4.6* at the 40th, 4.9er at the 50th, 5.3^ at the 54th, 5.\u00f60' at the 60th, b.'p\u2019 at the 66th, 6.7\u201d at the 70th and 7.0^ at the 73d. From this point onward the pitch continues to fall slowly, reaching 8.4er at the 80th vibration and ending with about 1 Ier.","page":35},{"file":"p0036.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"36\nE. IV. Scripture,\nIn pitch this ai differs radically from all the other examples ; it starts with a moderately high pitch and falls continuously. The course of the change in pitch is indicated in Fig. 42, plotted in the manner described for Fig. 6.\n/oo-\nFig. 42.\nThere is the possibility that the fall in pitch in this word may have something to do with its position at the end of a phrase. If the word had been followed by a long pause, it would naturally have fallen on account of its position at the end of a sentence ; the pause, however, was extremely short and we cannot very well assume a short pause as the equivalent of a period unless we give up the accepted theory of relation between punctuation and time. It is, nevertheless, possible that this theory may have to be modified as later researches have shown that comma pauses may be long and semi-colon and colon pauses may be very short. I am inclined to think, however, that the true explanation is to be found by supposing the ai in eye to be a phonetically different sound from the ai in /, although the ear may not clearly distinguish between them. This point will be spoken of below in the section on general observations on ai.\nFormation.\u2014In the portion from the beginning to the 43d cord vibration the formation resembles that of the 2d and the prose examples of I in having a large secondary resonance vibration at a constant distance after the beginning of the primary one ; this constant distance represents a period of 2.3* or a frequency of 435 (indicated in Fig. 43) as contrasted with the period of 3.5ff (frequency of 286, Fig. 9) for the former and 2.80' (frequency of 360, Fig. 35) for the latter. After the 43d vibration there is a change in the curve indicating a change in this large secondary ; apparently it decreases and disappears but I have not been able to decide with any confidence just what happens. After the 43d vibration the curve resembles that shown in Fig. 25.\n$\u00dc\u00cf\nFig. 43.","page":36},{"file":"p0037.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n37\nThe resonance tone of the a has a period of about i\" ora frequency of about iooo (Fig. io). At about the 40th cord vibration the period begins to lengthen, becoming i.S0, at the 63d, 2. Ier at about the 77th, after which it continues to fall slowly to 2.5\u00b0 at the end. The resonance tone of the i is thus on an average about the same as the lower resonance tone of the a (Fig. 43).\nIn spite of the fact that the fall in resonance begins at about the 40th vibration, the curve maintains its typical a form till after the 70th vibration. Beyond this point there is a decided difference, which is fairly well apparent in Fig. 41. The primary resonance vibration is of about the same amplitude as that of the a but the secondaries are all nearly as large as the primary. Such a difference might possibly be explained by a difference in the action of the vocal cords. The following theory is proposed. In the a they vibrate so that the air current is entirely cut off at one point in each vibration ; the pressure of the air forces them outward suddenly, producing a strong puff after which there is an interval before the cords again strike and cut off the air. This puff sets the air in the resonance chamber into vibrations that decrease in amplitude. As long as this complete closure occurs, any increase in the force of expiration will increase the force of the puff and of the primary and secondary resonance vibrations in approximately the same ratios. Increased force will change the amplitudes without essentially modifying the original form of the curve.\nDuring the i there is no such great predominance of one resonance vibration over the others ; the secondary resonance vibrations are nearly as strong as the primary. This is the case also in all the examples of ai studied above, but here it is very striking on account of the fact that the cord period for the i is longer and not shorter than that for the a ; there can thus be no attempt at explanation of the strength of the secondaries by the assumption of force gained by the shortening of the cord period. The explanation rather seems to lie in a different action of the cords. The following theory is suggested. In the formation of this 1 the cords do not strike or entirely close the air passage and thus the emission of air at the beginning is strong and steady rather than explosive ; the first resonance vibration would thus be somewhat stronger than the following ones but all would be nearly alike. The increased force in the / would make all of them nearly as strong as the primary of the a as in this word, or even far stronger than in the cases of I studied above.\nThe changes within this word are so gradual that any assignment of definite limits for the a and the i would be apparently capricious. The distinct a character appears to my eye to be lost somewhere after the 66th","page":37},{"file":"p0038.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"33\nE. If. Scripture,\nvibration and the distinct i character to begin somewhere about the 72d. If these points are selected as limits\u2014an action that is hardly justifiable \u2014the a would occupy an interval of 315\u00b0', the glide 35\u00b0\u2019 and the i 206\u00b0.\nThe a is at any rate longer than the i, in quite a marked opposition to the cases analyzed above.\nThe changes of the three tones in the / are indicated in Fig. 44.\nAmplitude.\u2014The a rises from zero as usual to an amplitude of o. 5\"\"\u201d at the 17th vibration and remains practically constant to about the 66th vibration, after which there is a slow decrease to zero at the end. There is not the rapid increase to a maximum in the i found in the cases of /studied above. The maximum for the / is somewhat less than that for the a. The course of the change is indicated in Fig. 45, which is plotted in the manner described for Fig. 15.\n.......Upper resonance tone.\n-------Lower resonance lone.\n-------Cord tone.\nEnding.\u2014This occurs by a fall of the amplitude to zero.\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014The ear notices that this word appears \u201cweaker than the preceding /\u2019s and also than the cases of die ; lower in pitch \u2019\u2019 (O.); \u201csomewhat higher in pitch than most of the /\u2019s but not so high as the immediately following 1 ; a somewhat colorless and unimportant word, differing quite from the modulated, flexible fly just preceding \u201d (E. W. S.). The weakness of the word seems related to the falling pitch and the weakness of the i. The words die and fly are considered below. To the ear there is no essential difference between the ai in /and that in eye, yet the speaker makes a difference as indicated by the curves of results for pitch and amplitude.\nai in the word die (first example).\nThis occurs in the phrase Who saw him die l The word occupies an","page":38},{"file":"p0039.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n39\ninterval of 510\u00b0' of which 47* belong to d and 463* to ai. The curve of the entire word is reproduced in Fig. 46.\n.^\u2713s/'/vwwWb\nJUsvAT-,^Aa/vV''''/'^AM/WVVMa/VWvW\\^^\nVWVWWWwvVwv-\nBeginning.\u2014The word begins with 20 vibrations belonging to the d. These vibrations have a period of 2.0^ or a frequency of 500. At the present moment it is impossible to say whether these are resonance vibrations imposed on a cord vibration or separate cord vibrations ; it is quite probable that they are cord vibrations as they have no appearance of being grouped as is the case in resonance vibrations imposed on cord vibrations.\nThe amplitude increases rapidly from zero to 0.3\"\"\" at the end of the d.\nImmediately after the strongest vibration of the d there follows a set of strong vibrations showing the a form.\nIn speaking the word die a decided movement of the larynx can be felt with the fingers ; this would indicate a considerable difference between the tension of the cords for d and that for a. The period of this first vibration is 3.2*; its amplitude is 0.3\u2122\u201c. The\u00ab thus begins promptly and loudly, as might be expected from the fact that the expiration is already in progress and the cords are already in vibration. The pitch of the a in the first vibration is higher than in the subsequent vibrations as might be expected on the assumption that the cords are already stretched to give a period of 2.0* for the d, and must be relaxed to produce the lower tone of the a. While this relaxation is going on, the cords must pass through all intermediate positions between that for a period of 2.o0\" and that for one of 3.2*. This occurs to a large extent apparently within","page":39},{"file":"p0040.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"40\nE. IV Scripture,\nthe time required for the vibrations of the <i. At the same time the mouth is changing from the d position to the a position. These facts seem sufficient to explain the curve of change in the drawing, Fig. 47 ;\nKig. 47.\nthe three vibrations on the left are the last of the d, the strong one on the right is the primary resonance vibration of the first puff of the a and the connecting line shows the curve during the glide.\nPitch.\u2014The successive periods of the cord vibrations are 2.8, 3.2, 4-9, 5-6.\t5-3.\t4-6,\t4-4,\t4.2,\t4-2,\t4-2,\t4-2,\t4-2,\t4-i,\t4-i,\t4-\u00b0,\t4-\u00b0,\t4-\u00b0,\n3-\t9> 3'9>\t3-9\u00bb\t3-9.\t3-9\u00bb\t3-9>\t3-9\u00bb\t3-9>\t3-9.\t3-9\u00bb\t3-9\u00bb\t4-i,\t4-i,\t4-2,\t4-2,\n4-\t2, 4-3\u00bb\t4-3\u00bb\t4-3\u00bb\t4-4>\t4-4,\t4-5\u00bb\t4-5.\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-7\u00bb\t4-7\u00bb\n4.7, 4-7,\t4-8,\t4-9.\t5-o,\t5-1\u00bb\t5-3.\t5-3.\t5-3.\t5-3,\t5-3.\t5-3.\t5-5.\t5-7.\t5-9>\n6.o, 6.1,\t6.3,\t6.5,\t6.7,\t7.0,\t7.2,\t7.4,\t7.4,\t7.5,\t7.6,\t7.7,\t8.1,\t8.4,\t8.8,\n8.9, 9.1, 9.5, 9.8, 10.5, 10.9, ii.2, 12.3, 13.0. These figures maybe o. iff either side of the correct values as, owing to instrumental difficulties, the curves could not be read to a smaller unit than o. imm.\nThe pitch thus quickly descends from the tone of 500 vibrations for the d to one of 179, then ascends to one of 257 and then again descends slowly to the very low one of 77. These changes are shown in Fig. 48, which is plotted like Fig. 6.\n500 -\njoo-\n/o 0 -\nFig. 4S.\nFormation.\u2014The a portion of the curve resembles that of 1, ist example, p. 17. The resonance vibration in the first part has a period of","page":40},{"file":"p0041.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n41\n1* or a frequency of 1000, as in the first /, p. 18, Fig. 10. At about the 40th cord vibration it is lengthened to 1.4\u00b0, at the 55th to 1.6*, at the 58th to 1.8*; after this it changes slowly reaching 2.1* at the 75th and increasing but little more to the end at the 86th.\nAt about the 52d vibration the curve, while still retaining the a form, appears to begin to take on the i character as described on p. 19 ; the i character appears fairly complete at about the 57th vibration. Although no definite limits are to be made, we can assign very roughly 240* to the a and 220* to the i, or about half of the time to each.\nNo trace of a strong secondary resonance vibration in the a portion can be detected. The a starts at a pitch too high for the lower resonance tone found in the previous cases, but even after the pitch has fallen this tone seems to be absent.\nA rather peculiar distribution of amplitude among the resonance vibrations can be seen in the a portion in Fig. 46. Although the puff for the cords is strong and sudden, as indicated by the large abrupt primary resonance, yet the force of the puff is not so quickly exhausted as in previous cases, as indicated by the greater size of the following resonance vibrations. The second case of die (below) resembles this one in this respect.\nThe changes in pitch of the two tones of this ai are indicated in Fig. 49.\nAmplitude.\u2014The vibration begins with an amplitude of 0.3\"\"\" for the primary resonance vibration which becomes 0.4'\"'\" at about the 35th vibration ; it sinks thereafter very slowly to zero at the end. The maximum amplitude is thus found in the a and there is no such sudden rise as is found in all the cases of I above. The course of change is indicated in Fig. 50 plotted like Fig. 15.\nFig. 49-Resonance tone.\nCord tone.\nFig. 50.\ntoo\nJOO\n'too\nroo","page":41},{"file":"p0042.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"42\nE. IV. Scripture,\nEnding.\u2014The/ends with a fall in both pitch and amplitude, indicating simultaneous relaxation of the cords and the respiratory pressure.\nRelation between a/n>e and color.\u2014The effect on the ear is that of \u201c more emphasis at the beginning with decrease toward the end \u201d (O. and E. W. S. ). The high pitch of the d and the a at the start seem to correspond to the word-color.\nai in the word die (2d example).\nThis occurs in the phrase / saw him die. The entire word occupies an interval of 504\u00ab% of which 28\u00bb can be assigned to the d and 476* to the ai. The entire curve is reproduced in Fig. 51.\n'AM/WVWlAWl/Wl/WVWVWV^Vl'Wl/l^Vl^\nFig. 51.\nBeginning.\u2014The word begins with 11 vibrations rapidly increasing in amplitude from o to 0.4\u201c and having a constant period of 2.5*, or frequency of 400. These are the vibrations for the d; they resemble those of die, ist example, p. 39.\nThe sudden fall in pitch after the d is quite marked. The d curve is lost at once. The following interval of 7* can hardly be said to be the first vibration of a as its secondaries are very irregular in form ; during this interval the mouth is changing from the d shape to the a shape. The peculiar form of the vibration is well shown in Fig. 51 ; the secondaries of the first few a vibrations are, however, slightly more prominent than in the original curve.\nPitch.\u2014The successive vibrations of\tai occupy periods measuring\t8.4,\n7.7, 4-6,\t4-2,\t4-2,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-6,\t4-9,\t5-3\u00bb\t5-3,\t5-3.\n4-9. 4-9)\t5-3\u00bb\t5-3.\t5-3>\t5-3.\tS-3>\t5-3.\t5-3.\t5-3>\tS-6\u00bb\t5-6\u00bb\t5-6>\t6-\u00b0\u00bb\t6.0,\n6.3, 6.7,\t6.3,\t6.0,\t6.3,\t6.3,\t6.7,\t7.0,\t7.0,\t7.0,\t7.0,\t7.4,\t7.7,\t7.7,\t7.7,","page":42},{"file":"p0043.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n43\n8.4, 8.4, 8.4, 9.0, 9.5, 10.5, 10.5, 10.5, 11.2, ii.6, 12.3, 12.3, 12.3, 13.0, 14.0, 14.0, 14.7, 15.8, 15.8, 15.8,?. As previously explained p. 13, these figures may be in error by one or two tenths of a sigma, or in ten-thousandths of a second. The pitch of the cord tone thus descends as low as a frequency of 63. The general course of pitch is shown in Fig. 52 plotted like Fig. 6.\nJoo-\nJ00 - -\n500\nFig. 52.\nFormation.\u2014The a curve differs from that of most cases of ai in having less difference between the first resonance vibration and the rest ; the first and second are, in fact, of almost equal intensity. This would indicate a more gradual opening of the cords with less explosive effect. The a thus does not differ so much from the i as in most cases. Another case of i like this is found in the first example of die (above) and in thy (below).\nThe resonance vibration in the a has a period of i\" or a frequency of 1000 at the start (Fig. 10). It falls steadily, reaching a period of 1.4e around the 20th vibration, i.8ff around the 40th, and 2. ia around the 60th, which is maintained to the end. There is no indication of a lower resonance tone.\nThe curve changes from the a form so gradually to the i form that it is quite impossible to place any dividing lines ; each element of the diphthong may be said roughly to occupy half the total time.\nThe changes of the two tones are indicated in Fig. 53.\nAmplitude.\u2014The amplitude of the strongest resonance vibration begins at 0.3 and is maintained with fair consistency for about half the ai ; after this it slowly falls to zero. This curve is given in Fig. 54 plotted like Fig. 15.\nFig. 53.\nResonance tone. Cord tone.","page":43},{"file":"p0044.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"44\nE. IV. Scripture,\nEnding.\u2014The i ends with a fall in both pitch and amplitude, indicating a simultaneous relaxation of the cords and the respiratory pressure.\nRelation between cun\u2019e and color.\u2014To the ear \u201cit does not rise to a high pitch but starts with it and maintains it better than the other word\nFig. 54.\ndie\" (0.); \u201cit starts high and steadily falls\u201d (E. W. S.). The apparent high start is probably due to the pitch of the d.\nai in the word fly.\nThis occurs in the phrase /, said the fly. The curve for ly occupies an\n\" vvwWWvWVWVv\u2014/VWvvV'a/'a/\\/w\\a/s/wv /y.zvWVwv/VVVvAvv/V'A'vi/V'd/^/Wl/wwtyvvWI/v^\n^VWVVVWwwwwma^^-\u00ab--\u2014\nFig. 55.\ninterval of 489* of which 25* belong presumably to the / and 464\u201c to the ai. The curve is given in Fig. 55. It is followed by a silent interval of 371\u00b0'which is longer than the comma pauses mentioned above (p. 16) and shorter than the full stop (pages 22, 25).","page":44},{"file":"p0045.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n45\nBeginning.\u2014No specific details concerning the / can be derived from the curve. The strong vibrations just preceding those of the a are presumably from the / sound. They rise rapidly in intensity and greatly resemble those of the d in the two cases of die above ; their period is 1.9\u00b0' and their frequency 526.\nImmediately after the last vibration of the l there follows a short a vibration with primary resonance vibrations not so strong as in the following ones. The cord adjustment seems not to be perfected for the a till the second characteristic a vibration occurs ; this is well shown in Fig. 55.\nThe a begins promptly and loudly after the l.\nPitch.\u2014The successive periods of the cord vibrations are 6.0, 6.3, 6.3, 6-3.\t6.3,\t6.3,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.7,\t6.3,\t6.3,\n6.3,\t6.0,\t6.0,\t6.0,\t6.0,\t6.0,\t5.8,\t5.8,\t5-8,\t5.8,\t5.6,\t5.6,\t5.6,\t5.4,\t5.3,\n5-3>\t5-3.\t5-3>\t4-9.\t4-9.\t4-9>\t4-9.\t4-9>\t4-9.\t4-9>\t4-9>\t4-2,\t4-2,\t4-2,\t4-2,\n4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t4.2,\t3.9,\t3.9,\t3.9,\t3.9,\t3.9,\n3-9\u00bb 3-9> 3-5> \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 (retaining this period for 27 vibrations) . . .,3.9, 4.2, 4.2, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6. There is a rather sudden, though small, change in period from 4.9 to 4.2; this occurs at the irregular place a little to the left of the middle of the fourth line of the curve in Fig. 55. This is due presumably to a rather sudden tightening of the cords for the i.\nThe course of change in pitch is shown in Fig. 56, which Fig. 57. is plotted like Fig. 6.\nFormation.\u2014The a portion of the curve resembles that of the 2d example of / (p. 22), with a specially strong secondary resonance vibration at 3.9^ after the primary, representing a tone with a frequency of 256. This is lower than in any of the previous cases (Fig. 57).\nThe resonance tone begins with a period ot 1.6* or a frequency of about 625 (approximately as in Fig. 58). This falls slowly reaching i.S^at about the 35th vibration, 2.0 at about the 40th, 2.2 at about the 50th, and 2.5 at the end. This indicates a resonance tone about the same as that of / in eye (p. 36, Fig. 43).","page":45},{"file":"p0046.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"46\nE. IV. Scripture,\nThe change from a to i proceeds in general as in all the other cases but the change in curve-form seems a little more marked. It may be said to occur at the 43d vibration, or 301* after the beginning and 163\u00ab before the end.\nThe changes in the three tones are indicated in Fig. 59.\nAmplitude.\u2014The a begins with an amplitude of o. 2mm for the strong resonance vibration in the first puff from the cords, 0.3\"\" for that in the second puff and rises quickly to 0.3^\"\"\". After remaining fairly constant for a while, it becomes o. 3\"1\"' toward the end of the a. In the first part of the i it rises to 0.4\"\"\u201c, after which it gradually falls to zero at the end. The change of amplitude shown is in Fig. 60, which is plotted like\nFig- 15-\nThe i ends, like most of the cases examined, in a combined fall in pitch and intensity.\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014To the ear this word has a fall-and-rise of intonation like that of 7veil and yes in such dubitative as Well, you may do soif you wish, but I would prefer not. Yes, it may very well be true although we have no evidence for it (O. and E. W. S. ):\nFig. 59.\n....... Upper resonance tone.\n-------Lower resonance tone.\n-------Cord tone.\nEnding. -\nFig. 60.\nThe word fly appears to sink and then rise in intonation to a greater degree than the corresponding words sparrow, fish, etc. This fall-and-rise is due to the fall from a tone of the frequency 526 of the / to one of 160 at the beginning of the a and then the rise in the a and i as shown in Fig. 56. Probably the reason for the rise in the i is to be found the rising intonation usual in English at the end of a parenthetical clause ;* that the clause said the fly is such a one inserted in the statement I, with my little eye, I saw him die seems indicated also by the fact that the silent interval after fly is less than that usual for a period. If said the fly were not parenthetical, there would probably be a longer pause\n1 SWEET, New English Grammar, \\ 1946, Oxford 1898.","page":46},{"file":"p0047.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n47\nafter fly and it would have a falling instead of a rising intonation. In this case the lines would read: Who saw him die? /, said the fly . With my little eye I saw him die. If special weight is to be given to the falling intonation of eye (p. 36) as opposed to the brevity of the pause after it, then eye would be considered as ending a phrase. The reading required by the intonations of fly and eye would thus be : Who saw him die ? I, said the fly , with my little eye'. I saw him die.\nai in the word thy (first example).\nThe word occurs in the phrase Hallowed be thy name on the gramophone record plate described on p. 15. Much of the work on this word has been done by Miss E. M. Comstock. The entire curve is reproduced in Fig. 61.\nThe time occupied by the word is 505.8<r. It is preceded by a silent interval of 73.5<r. It is followed by an interval of 145.3\u00bb before any trace of the n of the following word appears.\nFig. 61.\nBeginning.\u2014The word begins with 7 vibrations belonging to the th. These vibrations have a period of 2.5* or a frequency of 400. These are probably cord vibrations for the same reasons as given in the case of d in die, p. 39. The amplitude increases rapidly from zero to 0.2\"\"\" at the end.\nImmediately after the last vibration of th there follows the first strong vibration of the set showing the a form. The beginning of the a is thus prompt and loud.\nPitch.\u2014The successive periods of the cord vibrations in the ai are 7.0, 7.0, 7.4, 7.0, 6.7, 6.7 which is maintained with slight fluctuations to the end of the word. The sudden lengthening of the cord period","page":47},{"file":"p0048.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"48\nE. JV. Scripture,\n(that is, the lowering of pitch) at the start is peculiar ; it is made specially so because it is accompanied by a sudden rise in the pitch of the resonance tone (see below).\nFormation.\u2014The vowel portion of the curve shows throughout its whole length a common character. This character is that of a group of resonance vibrations imposed on each of a series of cord vibrations. In the earlier portion these resonance vibrations are not of equal amplitude while in the later portion they are very nearly so. In the earlier portion there is a strong primary resonance vibration followed by three secondary resonance vibrations (making a total of four resonance vibrations) except in the first two cord periods where there are only two secondaries after the primary (making a total of three). This first portion of the curve resembles that of an a but differs in having less difference between the primary and the secondary resonance vibrations ; in this fact it resembles the typical i.\nAt the 40th vibration the number of resonance vibrations has changed from four to three, showing a strong initial vibration followed by decreasing ones with a pause before the initial vibration of the next puff. The typical a of the preceding examples appears here strongly.\nThe i vibrations may be said to begin in the 44th with three resonance vibrations of almost equal strength, the initial vibration being slightly the stronger.\nIn the latter portion there are 3 resonance vibrations to every cord vibration ; the curve is that of a weak i of the kind seen in eye, p. 37.\nIf these vibrations just mentioned, namely the 40th and the 44th, may be considered as limits, the a may be said to occupy an interval of 258.3', the glide an interval of 19.6 and the fan interval of 210.o'. This subdivision, however, is rather a questionable procedure.\nThe resonance tone in the first portion begins with a period of 2.1or a frequency of 476 which immediately rises to 1.7\u00bb or a frequency of about 588 in the third vibration. The period then changes steadily to 1.9* at the 40th vibration; it becomes 2.of at about the 44th and remains constant to the end. The sudden rise of the resonance tone at the start is accompanied by an equally sudden fall of the cord tone (see above). It seems tnaural to infer that the resonance cavity of the mouth for the d must have been lower than that required for the a.\nThere is no trace of a lower resonance tone as described on p. 23.\nFig. 62.\nResonance tone. \u25a0 Cord tone.","page":48},{"file":"p0049.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n49\nThe changes in the tones of thy are sketched in Fig. 62. In general the resonance tone of the a can be said to be one of Fig. 63.\t588 vibrations or approximately as indicated Fig. 64.\nin Fig. 63, and that of the/ to be of 416 vibrations or as in Fig. 64.\nAmplitude.\u2014The primary resonance vibration on the first cord vibration of the ai has an amplitude of o. ij^mra. Up to about the 50th cord vibration the amplitude fluctuates between o.i\"\"\u201d and o. 2\"\"\u201c ; after that it gradually falls to zero. The fluctuations may be due to interference of the resonance vibrations. The course of amplitude is indicated in Fig. 65 which is a sketch and\tFig. 65.\nnot a careful plot like Fig. 15.\nEnding.\u2014The word ends by a fall of intensity with maintenance of the cord tension (p. 31).\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014The sound of this word thy as taken from the record appears to the ear \u201c higher and shorter than the second example; varying more in pitch, rising rapidly at first and then falling \u201d (E. M. C. ) ; \u201c high and short when compared with the second one \u201d (E. W. S. ).\nThe measured results show a shorter word of higher pitch than the second example. There is a slight rise at the start but no fall. The following word name is much lower in pitch.\nai in the word thy (second example).\nThe second example of thy occurs in the phrase Thy kingdom come. A reproduction of the curve is given in Fig. 66. Most of the work on this word has been done by Miss E. M. Comstock.\nThe curve for this word shows 6 faint vibrations at the beginning. These belong presumably to the th and correspond to the strong vibrations of th in the first thy, and of d in die. In contrast with the cases just mentioned these vibrations are so weak that little can be said about them definitely except that their period is 2.4er. It is just possible that they may belong to the first cord vibration of the a ; this is suggested by the fact that the period is the same as that of the resonance tone of the a. Although the matter is doubtful, we have assigned the beginning of the a to the end of these vibrations.\nThe ai in this word occupies an interval of 1085\u00b0. It is preceded by a silent interval of 2ioo<r, represented by a period and including possibly a short time for the th. It is followed by a silent interval of 324\" which undoubtedly represents the gutteral k.","page":49},{"file":"p0050.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"5\u00b0\nE. iV. Scripture,\nPitch.\u2014Begining with a period of 11.9^ the cord tone changes slowly, reaching 8.4 at the 10th vibration, 7.7 at the 20th, 7.4 at the 30th, and 7.0 at the 60th, which it maintains to the end.\nFormation.\u2014The curve of the a differs from most of the cases of the ai studied above in regard to the resonance vibrations. The first resonance vibration for each cord vibration is followed by a second one nearly as strong and this by a third one somewhat weaker, whereas in the previous cases there was one resonance vibration greatly exceeding the rest in amplitude. The curve suggests a more gradual opening\nFig. 66.\nof the cords and a less explosive effect ; the cord action in this a may be supposed to somewhat resemble that in the i as explained on p. 37.\nThere is no strong secondary of the kind described on p. 23. The a thus resembles the a in die and thy (above) rather than that in / in showing no evidence of a strong lower resonance tone.\nThe resonance vibration in the first part of the word shows a period of 2.4\". It rises to 1.6 at the 20th cord vibration falls to 1.9 at the 50th, 2.2 at the 70th, 2.5 at the 90th, and 3.5 at the end. This curious","page":50},{"file":"p0051.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t51\nrise of the resonance vibration during the a has not been observed in any of the previous cases. The rise and fall are so gradual that it is impossible to decide on any place as the turning point between them. For the same reason it is impossible to divide the word into a, glide and i. In the earlier portion the typical a form is distinctly seen in the curve and in the latter portion the typical i form, but the main portion shows a gradual passage from the former to the latter. There is no sudden increase in amplitude as in nearly all the i's studied.\nThe changes in the two tones of ai are indicated in Fig. 67. It will be noticed that the resonance tone of the a begins on the same pitch as the tone of the /l.\nFig. 67. Resonance tone. Cord tone.\nAmplitude.\u2014The amplitude runs from o. T,,m in the first part of the word to 0.2'\"'\" at the 30th vibration, falls to o.imm at the 50th, increases to 2.5'\"\"\u201c at the 70th, maintains this figure to the 80th and gradually falls to zero. The change in amplitude is indicated in Fig. 68.\nEnding.\u2014The sound ai ends by a fall of amplitude, the respiratory pressure gradually ceasing while the cords are still tense.\nRelation between curve and color.\u2014To the ear this word \u201cis longer and more mellow than the first example \u2019\u2019 (E.M.C.) ; \u201c begins low and rises with considerable inflection as compared with the first example \u2019 \u2019 (E. W.S. ).\nFig. 6S.\nThe measured results show a very long word, beginning very low and rising in pitch.\nGeneral observations on ai.\nThe ai in the cases studied above is to be considered as a union of two speech sounds, that is, as a diphthong.\nThe family of sounds represented by ai contains many members that differ greatly in their characters. This is true of the same speaker on a","page":51},{"file":"p0052.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"52\nE. IV. Scripture,\nsingle occasion; the changes for different speakers and for the same speaker on different occasions may be left out of consideration at present.\nThe first sound in ai in words like fly, my, thy, etc., is generally stated to be an a (as in ah') which inclines toward the mixed \u0153, that is, the vowel sound heard in burn and about;' it may even shade into the palatal ce (as in man, fat)* while in some cases it has a tendency to broadening, even to o (not) as in the Irish.1 2 3 * These statements all refer to British forms of pronunciation.\nThe second sound in ai as in fly is said to be a very open i, something between the i in kin and the e in ken.'\nThe diphthong ai cannot contain the vowel i as in keen or i as in kin. By holding down the tongue and lower jaw with a pencil it is not possible to pronounce either keen or kin, whereas there is no difficulty in saying/. It seems rather to be the vowel sound heard in the last syllable of foxes.\nThe sounds given above as the British pronunciation of ai do not, to my ear, correctly represent the North Atlantic form as heard in the region around New York. In this speech the first sound of ai seems to be a somewhat short a (as in father). Both pronunciation and curve indicate it to be like the a in parson, below. A similar judgment by the ear has been given by Grandcent.5\nIn its first half the North Atlantic ai (as in I, eye) seems to resemble the average German ai with a distinct a (father) sound. The second half seems to be different in the two cases. For the sake of comparison several cases of ai were examined in some records which were traced off with the machine described on p. io but with a shorter recording lever. Various words like ein, weisscr, Eis, Zeiten, Schein, etc., were closely studied in the tracings from Record No. 1500, Die Lorelei and Der Fichtenbaum, by W. L. Elterich. When examined under the magnifying glass, the a portion of the record showed in most cases curves analogous to those in the cases of /, whereas the i portion was extremely weak. This peculiarity of the weak i in the German ai and the very strong i in\n1\tViETOR, Elemente d. Phonetik, 3. Aufl., 95, 101, Leipzig 1894.\nSweet, Handbook of Phonetics, 9, Oxford 1S77.\nStorm, Englische Philologie, 2. Aull., 358, Leipzig 1S92.\n2\tStorm, Englische Philologie, 2. Aufl., 142, Leipzig 1892.\nLloyd, Speech sounds ; their nature and causation, Phonet. Studien, 1892 V 263 ; also a review on p. 87 of the same volume.\n3Sweet, History of English Sounds, 21, Oxford 188S.\n' Viktor, Elemente der Phonetik, 3. Aufl., 95, Leipzig 1894.\nStorm, Englische Philologie, 2. Aufl., 103, 35S, Leipzig 1S92.\nLi.oyd, Review in Phonet. Studien, 1892 V 87.\n5Grandgent, English in America, D. neueren Sprachen, 1895 II 446.","page":52},{"file":"p0053.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n53\nmost cases of the American ai gives the former the effect of containing a longer a. It must be noted, however, that many sounds usually treated as the same are really different. Thus the vowel in wciss in Ich weiss nicht was soll es bedeuten gives a curve differing greatly in character from that of 7oeisscr and the other words mentioned above. Again, some of the cases of the American ai reported above show a weakening of the i that indicates a tendency toward the German form. The details of the work now being done on the German \u00abAvili appear on a future occasion.\nIt has been pointed out that the quality of ai is different in a strongly accented syllable from what it is in a less accented one, as can be readily heard by comparing the two ai\u2019s in likewise.1 This difference is perhaps analogous to that found to exist between I and the words eye, die, fly, and thy.\nThe two chief sounds of ai are generally said to be joined by a rapid glide, which is not acoustically of much effect except to produce the impression of continuity.2 Yet it has been asserted that such a diphthong consists in an even and gradual change of the vowel from beginning to end.3 The above analyses show that the ai is not the sum of the two vowels a and i but an organic union into a new sound ai. Thus, there is no necessary pause or sudden change of intensity or change in pitch or even change in character. The later sound shows its influence in the earlier one, and the earlier one keeps its influence far into the later one. This is what would be expected on psychological grounds. The speaker does not think and speak of two sounds separately but of only one ; the execution of this one idea by two distinct processes would be unusual. The various degrees of perfection of the synthesis of the two elements would correspond to various expressive characters of the resulting sound.\nThe degree of synthesis of the two elements would be lessened by any great or sudden change in intensity, pitch or character of the cord tone or the resonance tone. In some of the cases of ai there are greater changes than in others.\nIn so far as they can be considered to be constant, the resonance tones in these cases of the a and the / were found to be as in Table I. These results may be compared with those of other observers ; this is done in Table II.\n1 Bei.l, Visible Speech, 113, London 1867.\nSweet, Primer of Phonetics, 76, \u00a7204, Oxford 1890.\nStorm, Englische Philologie, 2. Aull., 358, 405, 424, Leipzig 1892.\n2Lloyd, Review in Phonet. Studien, 1892 V 83.\nStorm, Englische Philologie, 2. Auf!., 204, Leipzig 1892.\n3 Soames, Introduction to Phonetics, 53, London 1S91.","page":53},{"file":"p0054.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"54\nE. IV. Scripture,\nTable I.\n\tLower resonance tone.\t\tUpper resonance tone.\n/, ist example\t286\t\t1000\n/, 2d \u201c\t286\t\t1000\nJ, 3d \u201c\t286\t\t1000\n/, 4th \u201c\t286\t\t1000\nI ( /caught his blood')\t3\u00bbS\t\t1000\n/, prose example\t360\t\t1000\nEye,\t435\t\t1000\nDie, 1st example\t\t\t1000\nDie, 2d\t\u201c\t\t\t1000\nFly,\t256\t\t625\nThy, 1st example\t\t588\t\nThy, 2d\t\u201c\t\t416\t\n/, ist example\ti 450\t\t\nI, 2d \u201c\t555\t\t\n/, 3d \u201c\t500\t\t\n4th \u201c\t400\t\t\n/, prose \u201c\t360\t\t\nEye\t400\t\t\nDie, ist example\t473\t\t\nDie, 2d \u201c\t473\t\t\nFly\t400\t\t\nThy, ist example\t416\t\t\nThy, 2d \u201c\t288\t\t\nWhen allowance for the individualities of different speakers is made, the two resonance tones that I have found for the a agree quite well with the tones found by other observers. The serious differences among these observers can be partially explained on the supposition that some have found the lower tone and some the upper one.\nAlthough the i in ai is not the ordinary long i, its resonance tone shows some agreement with those of a few observers. The higher resonance tone noted by other observers was also probably present in the i but it was impossible to measure it in the examples studied above (p. 20).\nParticular emphasis must be laid on the fact that the tones in a vowel are not constant factors and that the changes they undergo from instant to instant are presumably highly important in producing its peculiar character. Only two previous investigators have observed the change in the cord tone and no one seems to have suspected a possible change in the resonance tone.","page":54},{"file":"p0055.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n55\nTable IL\na\nLower resonance tone.\na in / (E. W. S.)\tdi\t\n/(E. W. S.)\t/\u201cliS <rl J\tt>\t\nEye (E. W. S.)\ta1\t\nDie (E. W. S.) Fly (E. W. S.)\t<-1\t\nThy (E. \\V. S.)\t\td2\nThy (E. W. S.)\t\t/'#\na (Willis)\t\t</3b,/3\na (Donders)\t\t\na (Helmholtz)\t\td3\na (Koenig)\t\tb*\na (Auerbach)\t\ta\\ /*, b*\na (Trautmann)\t\tf3,P\na (Pipping)\t\tc*#-d*\na (Hermann)\t\t/Vi\u2019!\na (Storm)\t\t*'#, an,/1\u00bb,\na (Boeke)\t\t/*#, V3\nai (Boeke)\t\t<\u00fc3\na (Bevier)\t\t\ni in\ti\t\n/(E. W. S.)\t\t/># to </2i>\nEye (E. W. S.)\t\t\nDie (E. W. S.)\t\t<5'b\nEly (E. W. S.)\t\t\nThy ( E. W. S.)\t\t<r'b, ?\ni (Donders)\t\tP\ni (Helmholtz)\t\tf+*\ni (Koenig)\t\tb*\ni (Auerbach)\t\t<3,fl\ni(Trautmann)\t\tf*,g*\ni (Pipping)\t\\\t[rW 1\ni (Hermann)\t\t\ni (Storm)\t\td\u2018\ni (Lloyd)\t\\\t\\ tr* + a* [ b~ ' + a13\nUpper resonance tone.\nb1 b* b2 b3 <r*b\nP-e*\nThe rise of pitch in the cord tone of the vowel a has been observed by Bof.ke1 to have extended over more than half a tone in words like Vader\n1 Boeke, Mikroskopische Phonogrammstudien, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1891 L 301.","page":55},{"file":"p0056.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"56\nE. IV Scripture,\n(Dutch). Marichelle makes the following observations on his phonograph records of the vowel a sung on different notes. \u201c The periods corresponding to low tones are divided into two distinct parts ; the intensity is feebler in the second half of the period. The gradual modification of the character [timbre] under the influence of variations of pitch operates almost entirely at the expense of the less intense portion of the period ; this second half even disappears little by little.\u201d1\nI have observed similar changes in the a of the German ei and in the vowels u and a described below.\nIt seems hardly possible at the present moment to specify the positions of the mouth corresponding to the resonance tones and their changes. Some idea of them may perhaps be obtained in the following way. Grandgent\u2019s sections 2 of the mouth for the vowels a and fare shown in Figs. 69 and 70.\nFig. 69.\nFig. 70.\nThe following view of the physiological action of the vocal cavities in producing ai in the case studied above is proposed tentatively. The depressed position of the tongue for the a leaves open a large cavity reaching from the teeth to the vocal cords ; the uvula offers no great interruption. The lower resonance tone of the a maybe considered to arise from the vibration in this cavity. The upper resonance tone of the a may be supposed to arise from the rear resonance cavity, that is of the throat cavity from the cords to the slight elevation of the tongue at the uvula. As the a changes to i this elevation of the tongue moves forward enlarging the rear cavity by including continually more of the mouth ; this continuously lowers the upper resonance tone until the tongue comes to rest in the typical i position. The variety of changes in the course of the upper resonance tone corresponds to individualities of action of the tongue in the various cases. In some cases the change from a to i is more sudden and definite (Figs. 14, 21, 27, 44, 62) and in others it is less definite (Figs. 31, 39, 49, 53) ; in other cases there is even laxity and fluctuation in the typical terminal positions (Fig. 66).\nI he supposition that the upper resonance tone arises from the cavity\n1 Marichelle, La parole d\u2019apr\u00e8s le trac\u00e9 du phonographe, 47, Paris 1897.\n2Grandgent, Vir.uel measurements, Publ. Mod. Lang. Ass., 1890 V 148.","page":56},{"file":"p0057.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n57.\nbehind the elevation of the tongue rather than front the one in front of it, although opposed to the usual view, does not exclude the presence of tones from the front cavity also. In fact these other tones are presumably also present though not distinguishable in my records.\nThe greater importance of the rear cavity seems to be indicated by the following facts. The laying of the finger on the tongue does not appreciably modify the enunciation of a. When the finger is introduced into the mouth and kept in front of the elevation for the i, it produces no appreciable effect ; but when it is pushed beyond the elevation into the rear cavity it changes the sound completely.\nIt may be noted that curious relations exist between the tones of two succeeding sonants (speech sounds with tones) ; in general it is true that the tones of a sonant form approximately musical intervals with a tone or tones of the preceding sonant.\nIn all cases of ai there is no sudden jump of the cord tone ; the i continues the cord tone of the a, forming with it the easiest musical interval, a unison. This tone is, however, different in different cases ; the cord tone of the a rises to a certain point selected for that of the i. The selection of the pitch of the cord tone for the i is influenced by the preceding resonance tones of the a, as may be seen in the following table.\nTone of\t\t\tTones of the a.\t\tTones\tof the i.\nd, l/i, l.\tCord,\t\tLower\tUpper\t\t\n\tstart.\tend.\tresonance, resonance.\t\tCord.\tResonance.\n/, ist example\t56\t250\t286\tIOOO\t250\t450\n/, 2(1 \u201c\t83\t250\t286\tIOOO\t250\t555\n/, 3d \u201c\t\u00bb3\u00bb\t250\t2S6\tIOOO\t250\t500\nI, 4th \u201c\till\t286\t286\tIOOO\t286\t400\nI, prose \u201c\t102\t180\t360\tIOOO\t180\t360\nEye,\t400\t160\t435\tIOOO\tI\u00d6O\t476\nDie, 1st example 500\t179\t200\t\tIOOO\t200\t473\nDie, 2d \u201c\t400\t217\t133\t\tIOOO\t133\t473\nFly,\t526\t160\t204\t256\t625\t256\t500\nThy, 1st example 400\t143\t149\t588\t\t\u00bb49\t416\nThy, 2d\t\u201c\t417\t84\t143\t416\t\t\u00bb43\t288\nIn the ist I the\tcord tone of / is\tpractically identical with\tthe\tlower\nresonance tone of\tthe\ta ; the fixed\tlower resonance tone of\tthe\ta ap-\nparently furnishes a standard toward which the cord tone of the a rises to begin the i. The cord tone is also just two octaves below the upper resonance tone of\tthe\ta. There is\tno very simple relation between the\nresonance tone of\tthe\ti and any of\tthe tones of the a.\nIn the 2d I the relations are similar to those in the ist /.","page":57},{"file":"p0058.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"58\nE. IV. Scripture,\nIn the 3d / the cord tone of the i is also practically in unison with the lower resonance tone of the a and also at two octaves below the upper resonance tone. The resonance tone of the i is just an octave below the upper one of the a.\nIn the 4th / the relations are practically as in the previous one except for the fact that the resonance tone of the i is two and a-half octaves below the upper resonance tone of the a.\nIn the prose / the cord tone of the i is an octave below the lower resonance tone of the a while the resonance tone of the i appears as a continuation of the lower resonance tone of the a with no simple relation to its upper resonance tone.\nIn eye the cord tone of the i is one and a-half octaves below the lower resonance of the a and the resonance tone is practically a continuation of that tone, with no relation to the upper resonance of the a.\nIn die (ist example) the cord tone is five octaves below the upper resonance tone of the a, which has no lower resonance tone. It is also two and a-half octaves below the tone of the d. The resonance tone of the i shows no relation to any tones of the a, although it approximates the tone of the d.\nIn die (2d example) the cord tone of the a starts approximately an octave below that of the d. No other relations between the various tones are apparent.\nIn fly the lower resonance tone of the a is an octave below the tone of the/. The cord tone of the i in its main portion continues the lower resonance tone.\nIn thy (ist example) the cord tone of the / is approximately four octaves below the resonance tone of the a and its resonance tone is approximately in unison with the tone of th.\nIn thy (2d example) the resonance tone of the a is in unison with the tone of th. The cord tone of the i is three octaves below this tone. The resonance tone of the i is an octave above its cord tone and 1 l/n octaves below the resonance tone of the a.\nSuch a relation between successive tones in speech is merely what would be expected in a melodious voice. An illustration of a similar relation will be found below in the account of the sound ll of the word who'It.\nStudy of the words \u201c Who'll be the parson?\"\nIn the following phonetic analysis of a complete phrase I have been much assisted by Miss E. M. Comstock.\nThe complete curve is given in Fig. 71. It begins with the breath","page":58},{"file":"p0059.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.","page":59},{"file":"p0060.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"6o\tE. JV. Scripture,\nindicated by the letters ruh ; this is not the sound of wh in which but the breathing h.\nThe aspirate h.\nThe first of the series of sounds is heard as an aspirate followed by the vowel u. The curve (Fig. 71, line 1) shows that it occupies a time of 35er. Its tone has a constant period of 2.8\u00b0', or a pitch of about 380 vibrations per second. Its amplitude rises from zero to a maximum of 0.2\u201c It is thus a \"crescendo sustained\u201d sound; in particular, a crescendo sustained light breath. The tone of the h, as shown by the vibrations in the curve, is a resonance tone arising from the passage of the air through the mouth; it is not a cord tone. The reasons for considering the vibrations to have arisen from a resonance tone and not from a cord tone are the following: (1) such high cord tones are not found in the other sounds produced by this speaker; (2) the vibrations of 2.5\u00bb are followed by two vibrations of 2.3\u00bb and 2.1* respectively and then by the vibrations of the u beginning with a cord tone of 6.3* and a resonance tone of 1.9\u00b0\"; the tone of 2.5\" thus leads rather to the resonance tone of the u and could with hardly any possibility be considered as a cord tone with an instantaneous drop of three octaves.\nThese results do not agree with the view that the first sound of who'll is a voiceless form of u. The sound h is usually said to arise from the breath passing through the mouth already adjusted to the following vowel, the cords being open and the resonance tone alone being heard. \u201c In the opinion of some authorities, h has the same position as the beginning of the following vowel.\u201d1 2 Most later observers have adopted the same view.* According to this view we cannot speak of a single h but must suppose for each vowel a corresponding h: h\", h\u2018, h\", h% h\", etc., each of which has an adjustment of the mouth like that of the corresponding vowel and differs from that vowel only in having a noise from the cords instead of a tone.3 \u201c Our h combines a noise from the cords (and subsidiary a noise in the mouth-cavity) with the mouth position of a vowel. The common element in h\", li, h\", etc., does not lie in the vocalic position of the mouth-cavity, which is really different, but in the larynx at the vocal cords, whose position is here a peculiar one, different from\n1\tT\u00e2ittir\u00eeya PrAti\u00e7\u00e2khya, ii 47, ed. by Whitney, Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc., 1871 IX 77-\n2\tMichaelis, Ueber das H und die verwandten Laute, Arch. f. d. Studium d. neueren Sprachen (Herrig), 1887 LX.XIX 49, 283.\n3See quotations in Michaelis, as before, 79.","page":60},{"file":"p0061.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t61\nthat for the loud voice (vox) and from that for the whisper voice (vox clandestina ). \u201911\nA special adjustment of the mouth for h seems to have been first asserted by Valentin who remarks: \u201cThe palate, apparently narrowed as a whole, is somewhat drawn upward whereas the root of the tongue is moderately arched.\u201d1 2 Merkel asserts: \u201cThe whole cavity from larynx to mouth-opening opens or narrows itself at once to the degree required by the following vowel. The tongue however in forming the h does not yet assume the position required for the vowel in question. Thus when i is to follow it lies lower than the position for this vowel.\u201d3 Both these and a series of later observers apparently supposed the configuration of the mouth to aid in the rough noise of the h. This view is undoubtedly partially true as in many cases of h the friction of the air can be felt in the mouth. I venture to suggest, however, that the assumption of a particular position for the h is for the purpose of giving it a resonance tone instead of making more noise by friction ; the curve for wh in the case under consideration shows a resonance period of 2.5\u00b0 as contrasted with that of 1.9^ for the following u.\nIndications of a tendency to give h an independent resonance cavity are apparent in remarks by Lloyd. \u201c h and o in hold are successive, but they slightly overlap. When such a combination is to be produced, the cords instantly leap into a position sufficiently close to cause a slight friction. They then close more slowly, until they are planted close together, and voice ensues. The vowel position has already been assumed, but there is no vowel so long as the glottal orifice is still comparatively wide. But there is a moment, just before the cords begin to sound, when the glottis is narrowed to a whispering position ; and, for that moment, the sound is both h and whispered vowel. If ho is whispered, the h is still prior, for it begins with a glottal orifice so large as quite to mar the adjusted resonance of the 0 vowel-configuration ; and there is no vowel until the close position of whisper is reached. When that is reached, it is held ; and the whispered vowel itself may be viewed as the mere promulgation of the final element of the h. h is therefore really a glide from simple Mund und Kehlresonanz (such as is heard in a sigh) to a whispered Anlaut of the following vowel, i. e., from a nearly uniform beginning to a far from uniform end.\u201d4\n1\tMichaelis, as before, 79.\n2\tValentin, Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, II 291, 1844, quoted by Michaelis, as before, 61.\n3\tMerkel, Laletik, 72, 1866, quoted by Michaelis, as before, 72.\n4\tViETOR, Elemente der Phonetik, 3. Aull., 22, Leipzig 1894.","page":61},{"file":"p0062.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"\u00d62\nE. IV. Scripture,\nThereseems to be some conflict between Lloyd\u2019s statement that in the h the vowel position has been already assumed and that it starts from a nearly uniform beginning. I would suggest the view that the h in this case of wh possesses a definite resonance cavity of its own which may be related to but is yet different from that of the following u.\nThe most plausible view of the nature of this wh seems to include the following points.\nIn the first place it is either the glottal fricative produced by a narrowing of the glottal opening sufficient to produce a rough sound without a tone, or a sonant fricative produced by a narrowing of the proper cord glottis while the cartilage glottis remains open.1 Both views are consistent with the fact that a distinct movement of the larynx can be felt with the fingers when wh is pronounced. The former view is consistent with the curve under consideration, but the latter view is favored by some of the other cases of wh in the record studied, which show some slight but not quite certain indications of a grouping of the resonance vibrations and therefore of the presence of a cord tone.\nThe h is considered as a sonant in all Sanskirt treatises.5 Traces of a sonant h have been found in speech curves of the Finnish language.3 The consideration of the vexed question of sonant h must be postponed to a future occasion.\nIn the second place the h contains at least one tone arising from the resonance cavity in front of the cords. This tone I believe to be one of a pitch peculiar to h, just as certain tones are peculiar to certain vowels. The frequency of the h tone in this h is 400. I do not believe that for this tone the mouth is adjusted to the position of the following u with a resonance tone of 526, and that the pitch of the cavity is modified by the difference in the greater enlargement of the glottal orifice so that the tone 400 is produced. My reasons for this last statement are : ist, h can be sounded alone without giving information concerning the following vowel ; 2d, the difference between the opening of the cords for the h position and that for the vowel position is too small to produce such a great difference in the pitch of the resonance cavity ; 3d, the assumption that the h cavity is the same as that of the following vowel is not supported by any positive proof and in the absence of such proof it is unwise to accept an\n\u25a0CZERMAK, Ueber d. Spiritus asper und lenis, etc., Sitz.-Ber. d. Wiener Akad., math.-naturw. Cl., 1866 LII (2) 630, Anmerk. 1 (also in Schriften, I 756).\n2 Taittir\u00eeya Pr\u00e2ti\u00e7\u00e2khya, i 13.\nsPirpiNG, Zur Phonetik d. finnischen Sprache; Untersuchungen mit /Pensen\u2019s Sprach-zeichner, M\u00e9m. de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 finno-ougrienne, XIV, Helsingfors 1899. (Review in Deutsche Litteraturzeitung, 1900, April 28.)","page":62},{"file":"p0063.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\t63\narrangement involving an anticipatory adjustment of the vocal organs whereby the vowel is prepared for before the h is produced.\nThe hu glide.\nThe aspirate h is followed by two vibrations with periods of 2.3\u00b0 and 2.i<r respectively (Fig. 71, line 2). They are resonance vibrations produced by the passage of the air through the mouth cavity. They might with propriety be considered as belonging to the h, from which they differ only in period. Yet the change from the h period of 2.5\u00b0 denotes the rise of an impulse toward another sound and, if the concept of a glide is to be admitted at all, they are to be treated as a glide. The intention shown in the glide is to change the mouth tone from 2.5^ for the h to 1.9er for the u. The second of these glide vibrations ends suddenly with the puff of air from the first vibration of the cords in making the u.\nThe vowel u.\nThe word is so short that the ear is not able to attribute any particular quality to the vowel.\nThe curve for the u (Fig. 71, lines 2 and 3) closely resembles that for ai in its general character. The first part shows a rising cord tone and a nearly constant but afterwards falling resonance tone. In the latter portion the cord tone is approximately constant while the resonance tone falls. The change in the character of the action of the cords appears clearly also as in ai (p. 37). It is, in fact, very evident that this sound is really a diphthong with possibly less difference between the two elements than in the case of ai. This diphthongal character of the English it is well known to phoneticians ; the sound is generally indicated by mu. A separation of the sound into its two parts will not be attempted here.\nThe curve at the beginning of the u shows a vibration of 6.3\u00b0 from the vocal cords acting on a cavity whose period r-9ff is not a sub-multiple of the cord period. As the cord period is gradually shortened, the resonance period (remaining the same) steadily modifies the form of the resultant vibration, and the curve is seen to change its form gradually. The relation between cord tone and resonance tone is closely analogous to that in the a of ai (p. 19).\nThe successive vibrations of the \u00ab occupy the periods of 6.3, 6.1, 6.1,\n5.6,\t5.4, 5.4, 4-9. 4-9\u00bb 4-9\u00bb 4-9. 4-9. 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-2, 4-2, 4-2, 4-2, 4.2, 4.2, 4.2, 4.6, 4-6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6,\n4.6,\t4.6ff. The total time occupied by the u is 167^.\nThe u thus shows a sudden tightening of the cords to a tension necessary for a tone with a period of 6.3* and thereafter a gradual increase of","page":63},{"file":"p0064.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"64\nE. IV. Scripture,\ntension to a maximum represented by 4.2\u00b0', after which there is a fall to 4.6* at which the tone remains constant.\nThe resonance tone begins with period of 1.9\" or a frequency of 526. For the vowel u the following resonance tones have been assigned : Donders,/1; Helmholtz,/; Koenig,^; Auerbach, g-b, /\u2019 ; Traut-mann, f\\ g1 ; Pipping, /8-/#1, g'-P ; Hermann, \u00e2-el ; Storm, a; Boeke, d*. My measurements indicate a resonance tone of 526 vibrations a second, or approximately c1. I have not yet been able to settle the question of a lower resonance tone.\nThis resonance tone is, however, not constant. This is especially evident during the last part of the u where the cord tone is constant. In this region of constancy the curve steadily changes its form from the earlier u form toward the / form ; during the last 8 or 10 cord vibrations it is difficult to say whether the curve belongs to the u or the /. The cord vibrations of the u period persist in their own constant period, however, to a point which can be detected. We are thus justified in reckoning these vibrations to the u although the mouth cavity has been presumably steadily shaping itself for another sound.\nRepeatedly observed facts of this kind have forced upon me the belief that the view of a word as composed of a set of fixed sounds with glides between them is a somewhat inadequate one. It is derived from the attempt to get away from the artificial character of spelling but it still largely retains that character. The usual view of the word 10/10'// would represent it as composed of h\u2014glide\u2014u\u2014glide\u2014/. The vocal organs are supposed to occupy three distinct positions, the glides representing the intermediate positions during the moments of change.\nA somewhat different view seems better fitted to the actual curves. The unit of speech is sometimes a phrase, sometimes a word, and never a vowel or a consonant unless it is at the same time a word. In speaking a word the vocal organs pass through a series of positions of a special character without stopping in any one position. Thus the word who'h represents a continuous change in the force of expiration following a definite plan, also a continuous change in the tension of the vocal cords, likewise continuous movements of the parts of the mouth. The force of expiration rises from o to a maximum in 35,r at the end of the h, lontinues with slight fluctuation during 171 ^ in the glide and u, and finally \u2019ies away at 27 7 with the end of the /. Before the breath begins the mouth has adjusted itself to a tone of a period of 2.8^ ; this position changes very slightly during the 35\" of h ; then it makes a rapid change through 2.3, 2.1 to 1.9\u00b0' in the u, remains constant during 167\" and rises suddenly to the mouth tone of the / (not determinable here).","page":64},{"file":"p0065.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n65\nOn speaking the word who'Il I perceive apparently continuous movements of the lips and tongue ; they do not assume fixed positions at any moment. This would agree with the changes just described.\nThe cord tone has a somewhat similar history. It begins with a period of 6.3\u00b0 in the u at 39** after the beginning of the word; it rises steadily to 4.2* and then falls to a constant pitch of 4.6<r for the latter part of the u ; suddenly it rises to 2. for the /and remains practically constant for 7iff.\nThere are thus at least three distinct but cooperating continuous processes following different courses throughout the word, namely, the force of expiration, the resonance tone and the cord tone.\nIt seems thus somewhat artificial to divide the word who'll into 3 or 5 sounds ; we may preferably say that for the sake of discussion 5 stages in the changing sound may be picked out as typical of the whole process. To illustrate by an analogy, we might take single pictures out of a series of views of a runner made for the kinetoscope and treat the whole movement as made up of a series of positions in which the runner remains at rest. This treatment has its advantages for certain cases but we should never lose sight of the fact that the true movement occurs otherwise.\nThis view is not inconsistent with the fact that some of the elements of a vocal sound may remain approximately constant for a short time. Thus, the pitch of the h is nearly constant\u2014as far as our methods can discover\u2014though the intensity is changing, and the pitch of the u is fairly constant for a while.\nThe liquid ll.\nThe sound ll apparently does not begin suddenly but arises from a modification of the u. The u itself has been steadily changing its character from the very beginning ; during its last five or more cord vibrations it gradually approaches the form of curve that characterizes the ll. After this point the curve takes the ll form which differs completely from that of the u at the start (Fig. 71, line 4). As stated above, the explanation is presumably (1) that the cord tone remains on the u pitch until a certain moment at which it suddenly rises to the / pitch, whereas (2) the mouth cavity begins to modify itself from the u form to the / form before the cord tone changes. This is quite in agreement with the view that in the English l the back part of the tongue is elevated whereby it receives a guttural character1 and is in this respect related to u.\nThe l shows 34 vibrations with a constant period of 2. i<r. It occupies a total time of 71'.\n1 Literature in Storm, Engl. Philologie, 2. Aufl., 139, Leipzig, 1892.","page":65},{"file":"p0066.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"66\nE. W. Scripture,\nThe form of the vibration steadily changes as shown in the figure.\nThe changes in pitch in this word who'll confirm the. law deduced for <r/(p. 57) to the effect that ina succession of sonants (speech elements with tones) the cord tone of a sonant tends to be a multiple or a submultiple of the cord tone or the mouth tone of the preceding sonant.\nThe relations are not exact but only approximate. The mouth tone 2.5* of the h is followed by a cord tone for the u having a general average of 5.0er or an octave below the former. The mouth tone of the u i.9er is followed by a cord tone for the / of pretty nearly the same period\n2.X<t.\nSuch a law is what would be expected in a voice\u2014at any rate in one that was not unpleasant\u2014for the human ear finds pleasure in a succession of tones whose periods stand in certain relations. Possibly some of the explanation of disagreeable voices may be found in the violation of this law.\nIn general the curve of this / may be said to resemble the forms given by Wendeler1 and Hermann and Matthias.2\nThe l given by Wendeler is a spoken sound ; the figure shows that it must have had a falling cord tone and a decreasing intensity.\nThe examples of / studied by Hermann and Matthias were sung on notes of different pitch. Their analysis showed that these examples all contained a tone between f% and g%. They also found for the lower notes also a tone that was the octave of the cord tone and changed with it, and for the higher notes a reinforcement of the cord tone itself. This reinforcement of a partial tone of the cord tone is not found in the vowels studied by Hermann or in the cases of ai considered above except in two cases, namely, in the i in the 3d example of I and in fly (see list on p. 57). There is apparently some difference in the action of the mouth in forming the /. This difference may be felt by singing the / on a note of rapidly rising or falling pitch ; there is apparently a movement of the tongue whereby it is pressed more strongly against the palate as the pitch rises. The consequent change in the size of the resonance cavity might, by the appropriate connection between tongue and cord, go parallel with the change in the cord tone and thus always reinforce one of its partials.\nOur curve does not enable us to make any measurements of the resonance tones, but its steady change in form while the cord tone re-\n1\tWendeler, Ein Versuch, die Schallbcivegung einiger Consonanten und anderer Ger\u00e4usche mit dem Idensen'sehen Sprachzeichner graphisch darzustellcn, Zt. f. Biol., 1887 XXIII 314, Tafel III, Fig. 21 B.\n2\tHermann und Matthias, Phonopholographische Miltheilungen, V. Die Curven der Consonanten, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 255> Tafel II.","page":66},{"file":"p0067.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n67\nmains constant shows that the resonance tone or tones change independently. The tongue probably moves while the cords remain at a constant tension. This example of / thus differs from those of Hermann and Matthias.\nThe labial b.\nIn the spoken words on the gramophone plate the sound b follows immediately upon the ll without pause. The speech curve at this point (Fig. 71, line 5) shows no measurable vibrations, the enlargement not being great enough to reveal the details of the weak tone of the b. The interval occupied is 96\u00b0.\nThe vowel i.\nThe vibrations (Fig. 71, lines 6 and 7) have constant period of 2.8*. They start with an amplitude of o and rises steadily to an amplitude of o. 2n,m. At the end they fall to o suddenly in four vibrations (Fig. 71, line 8). The pitch of the mouth tone could not be determined. This i seems a rather weak vowel when compared with the i in ai. The sudden ending indicates a quick cut by the following th (see above p. 31). The last four vibrations (Fig. 71, line 8) differ somewhat in character from the others and seem to indicate a diphthongal ending to the i.\nThe sonant post-dental dh.\nAs can be heard from the gramophone plate, the i sound in be is cut short by the dh of the. This sound appears in the tracing (Fig. 71, line 8) as a space with faint waves following immediately on the sudden fall of the i vibrations ; the scale of enlargement is not sufficient to give definite information concerning the waves of the dh. This sound occupies a time of s6ff.\nThe indefinite vowel a.\nThis vowel follows dh in the. It rises somewhat rapidly to its maximum, remains at an even amplitude (Fig. 71, line 9), and drops suddenly to o in the last 4 vibrations. It has a pitch of 6.7\u00b0' on an average and a maximum amplitude of 0.4\"\"\". The entire vowel contains 12 cord vibrations and occupies a total time of 84\".\nThe (.ip glide.\nThe vowel a of the is cut short by the closing of the lips for p. This suddenly reduces the amplitude of the vibrations till they are very faint (Fig. 71, line 9), yet the cords continue to vibrate after the closure as may be seen from the faint vibrations (Fig. 71, lines 9 and 10). The","page":67},{"file":"p0068.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"68\nE. U'. Scripture.\nsound can no longer be considered to be the vowel a and cannot in the usual sense be called a p. It may be treated as a glide although it occupies fully two thirds of the interval of 112* between the a in the and the a in parson.\nThe labial p.\nIf the period of sonancy after the is to be considered as a glide, the remaining third of the 1120' may be assigned to the p (Fig. 71, line 10).\nThe vowel a.\nThe word parson appears to the ear (E.W.S. ) to have an inflectional force of the form indicated in Fig. 72, as often appears at the end of questions ; the circumflexion appears to lie in the a and the deep fall to be in the \u00ab ; this word seems to contain a trace of an r. This word differs\nFig. 72.\tFig. 73.\nfrom the same word four lines later (p. 15) which appears to the ear to have a deep inflectional tone, at first level and then falling as in deciding a matter ; this is indicated in Fig. 73. This latter word seems to contain no r. The word parson is in both cases apparently continuous with the word the and would be acoustically written theparson.\nThe vowel a in this case occupies a period of i8o<r. It is preceded by the interval of 112* belonging to the p and is followed by a glide of 12.3\u201d-.\nIt shows 36 cord vibrations. The pitch rises gradually as shown by the following measurements of the successive periods: 6.7, 7.0, 6.7, 6.0, 6.0, 6.3, 5.3, 5.3, 5.3, 5.3, 5.3, 5.3, 4.9, 4.9, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.2, 4.2, 4.2, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3.9, 3-9. 3-9\u00bb 3-9. 4-o, 4-2.\nIt contains a constant lower resonance tone with a period of a.S* or a frequency of 357 (Fig. 35).\nThe upper resonance tone is one of about 714 vibrations per second.\nThe amplitude rises through the first four vibrations from zero to 0.3\"\"\" and is maintained at this to the end.\nThe vowel a in parson has undoubtedly a diphthongal character. The first portion resembles the a sound discussed above (p. 16) in the rising cord tone but differs radically in the falling resonance tone, in which respect it is somewhat like the a in die (Figs. 49 and 53). The latter","page":68},{"file":"p0069.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n69\nportion (Fig. 71, line 13) is related to the earlier portion much as the i is related to the a in ai in respect to amplitude, the lowering of the resonance tone and the continuance of the cord tone. Although this latter portion is not so long as in most cases of ai, the resemblance is sufficient to justify the statement with which this paragraph begins. The sound might be written ax where the sign x indicates a brief vowel not yet determined. It may be suggested that this brief vowel may arise from the weakening of the r, whereby a vowel sound partially or completely replaces the full r. It seems, however, to be a general rule, that in English long vowels have a diphthongal character.\nThe ar glide.\nThe sudden fall in amplitude and the change in pitch of the vowel x in ax is continued through an interval of S.S\" in which 3 vibrations with a period of 2.4* appear (Fig. 71, line 13, middle). During this time the tongue is presumably passing to the r position.\nThe liquid r.\nThe very brief r is distinctly heard in the word parson ; it occupies a time of 63\u00b0' (Fig. 71, line 13 middle to line 14 beginning).\nThe r shows clearly 3 \u201c pseudo-beats with a period of 19* or a frequency of 53. The vibrations within the beats are grouped in pairs indicating a cord tone acting upon a resonance cavity. The period of the cord tone is at first constant at 3.5er ( frequency 286 ) but falls slightly in the third beat. The resonance tone has a period apparently constant at 1.4\u00b0' ( frequency 714 ). Still higher resonance tones are probably present. The following explanation of this curve is proposed tentatively. The r consists of a cord tone with a frequency of 286 acting upon a resonating cavity adjusted to a frequency of 7x4. The tongue is adjusted to vibrate with a frequency of 53 ; this vibration of the tongue closes and opens the air passage so that the intensity of the sound escaping from the mouth is regularly varied from zero to a maximum and again to zero at the rate of 53 times a second.\nThe pseudo-beats with the cord and resonance vibrations are shown in the curves by Wendeler2 and in those by Nichols and Merritt. The German rolled r of Wendeler has a much longer beat period, in general over25o0' or sec. ; the Finnish r of Pipping has a beat of }4\n\u25a0Wendeler, as before, p. 304.\n2Wendeler, as before, Tafel II.\n3 Nichols and Merritt, The photography of manometric flames, Physical Review 1898 VII 93, Plates I and II.","page":69},{"file":"p0070.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"7o\nE. IV. Scripture,\nto Yz sec.1 The American rolled r of Nichols and Merritt has also apparently a long beat-period as far as can be judged from the pictures. The brief r in three examples given by these last observers has apparently a shorter beat-period than that ofparson. The cord period in Wendeler\u2019s examples varies apparently from 2.3er to 3.3er (Wendeler\u2019s own computation of a frequency of 200 or a period of 5er can hardly be correct); the resonance period lies in the neighborhood of 1.7\u00b0', according to my calculation from his records.\nThe sibilant s.\nThis follows directly upon the r. The vibrations in the curve are hardly distinguishable and no very definite limit can be set to them.\nThe liquid n.\nThis follows immediately on s (Fig. 71, line 14 to end). It occupies anintervalof 197\u00b0\". The successive vibrations occupy periods of 4.2, 3.5, S-I\u00bb 3-7, 5-3. 4-i, 4-1, 5-3> 4.2, 4-9, 4-9. 5-3, 5-3\u00bb 5-3\u00bb 5-3. 5-3\u00bb 5*6, 5-3\u00bb 5-3. 5-6, 5-6, 5-3. 6.7, 6-3- 6-7> 6.7, 7-\u00b0, 7.0, 7.0, 7.0, 7.0, 8.4, 8.8, 8.8, 9.1, 8.8. The maximum amplitude is o.imm.\nIV. The nature of vowels.\nTo the question, \u201c What is a vowel ? \u201d several kinds of answers may be given.\nA vowel may be defined as the sound produced by a certain action of the vocal organs. Some specially peculiar position of one or more of the organs is usually selected as characteristic. Nearly every writer on phonetics gives a definition whose elements are the positions of the vocal organs. Such a definition may be called a \u201cphysiological definition of a vowel.\u2019\u2019\nAnother method of defining a vowel consists in giving the physical character of the sound of which it consists. This method was proposed by Willis who justifies it by the following considerations :\n\u201cThe mouth and its apparatus were constructed for other purposes besides the production of vowels, which appear to be merely an incidental use of it, every part of its structure being adapted to further the first great want of the creature, his nourishment. Besides, the vowels are mere affections of sound, which are not at all beyond the reach of human imitation in many ways, and not inseparably connected with the human organs, although they are most perfectly produced by them ; just so,\n\u25a0Pipping, Ziir Phonetik d. finnischen Sprache, M\u00e9m. del\u00e0 Soc. finno-ougrienne, XIV, Helsingfors 1899.","page":70},{"file":"p0071.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in expermental phonetics.\t71\nmusical notes are formed in the larynx in the highest possible purity and perfection, and our best musical instruments offer mere humble imitations of them ; but who ever dreamed of seeking from the larynx an explanation of the laws by which musical notes are governed ? These considerations induced me, upon entering on this investigation, to lay down a different plan of operation ; namely, neglecting entirely the organs of speech, to determine, if possible, by experiments upon the usual accous-tical instruments, what forms of cavities or other conditions, are essential to the production of these sounds, after which, by comparing these with the various positions of the human organs, it might be possible, not only to deduce the explanation and reason of their various positions, but to separate those parts and motions which are destined for the performance of their other functions, from those which are immediately peculiar to speech (if such exist).\u201d1\nWillis\u2019s idea of studying the physical characteristics of a vowel has been developed by a series of later observers, finding its full expression in the study of curves of speech by the investigators referred to in Section I (p. 2). In its perfection the \u201cphysical definition of a vowel\u201d will consist of a mathematical expression for the course of the molecular vibration of the air which it involves.\nA third method of defining a vowel might be proposed, namely, a summarization of its mental characters as perceived by the person hearing it. This might be called a \u201cpsychological definition.\u201d It would consist in a statement of the pitch of the vowel as heard, whereby reference might be made to some standard musical instrument in determining the pitch ; also in a statement concerning its apparent intensity ; also one concerning its apparent length ; and finally one concerning its expressive character. Such definitions have not before been given ; they have been crudely attempted in some cases of the vowels I have studied in the preceding pages.\nWillis\u2019s theory.\nProbably the earliest well-founded statement in regard to the nature of vowels was that of Willis. His line of thought was as follows :\n\u201cIt is agreed on all hands, that the construction of the organs of speech so far resembles a reed organ-pipe, that the sound is generated by a vibratory apparatus in the larynx, answering to the reed, by which the pitch or the number of vibrations in a given time is determined ; and that this sound is afterwards modified and altered in its quality, by the\n'Willis, On vowel sounds, ant on reed- organ -pipes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1830 III 231.","page":71},{"file":"p0072.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"72\nE. IV. Scripture,\ncayities of the mouth and nose, which answer to the pipe that organ builders attach to the reed for a similar purpose.\u201d\nWillis fitted a reed to the bottom of a funnel-shaped cavity and obtained sounds resembling vowels by modifying the opening of the cavity. He then tried closed cylindrical tubes of different lengths and found that different vowel-like sounds were produced by different lengths of the tube. His experiments led .him to the conclusion that the vowel-like sounds are produced by the repetition of one musical note in such rapid succession as to produce another. \u201cIt has been long established, however, that any noise whatever, repeated in such rapid succession at equidistant intervals as to make its individual impulses insensible, will produce a musical note. For instance, let the musical note of the pipe be g\", and that of the reed S, which is 512 beats a second, then their combined effect is g\" -g\" \u2022\u2022\u2022 g\" -g\" - (512 in a second) in such rapid equidistant succession as to produce c', g\" in this case producing the same effect as any other noise, so that we might expect \u00e0 priori, that one idea suggested by this compound sound would be the musical note c'.\n\u201c Experiment shows us that the series of effects produced are characterized and distinguished from each other by that quality we call the vowel, and it shows us more, it shows us not only that the pitch of the sound produced is always that of the reed or the primary impulse, but that the vowel produced is always identical for the same value of s' [the length of the pipe]. Thus in the example just adduced, g\" is peculiar to the vowel A\u00b0 [fl as in all]: when this is repeated 512 times in a second the pitch of the sound is S, and the vowel is A\u00b0: if by means of another reed applied to the same pipe it were repeated 340 times in a second, the pitch would be/, but the vowel still A\u00b0. Hence it would appear that the ear in losing consciousness of the pitch of s [the length of the pipe] is yet able to identify it by this vowel quality. But this vowel quality may be detected to a certain degree in simple musical sounds ; the high squeaking notes of the organ or violin speak plainly I, the deep bass notes U, and in running rapidly backwards and forwards through the intermediate notes, we seem to hear the series U, O, A, E, I, I, E, A, O, U, etc., so that it would appear as if in simple sounds, that each vowel was inseparable from a peculiar pitch, and that in the. compound system of pulses, although its pitch be lost, its vowel quality is strengthened.\u201d .\t.\t. \u201cHaving shown the probability that a given vowel\nis merely the rapid repetition of its peculiar note, it should follow that if we can produce this rapid repetition in any other way, we may expect to hear vowels. Robinson and others had shown that a quill held against a","page":72},{"file":"p0073.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n73\ntoothed wheel, would produce a musical note by the rapid equidistant repetition of the snaps of the quill upon the teeth. For the quill I substituted a piece of watch-spring pressed lightly against the teeth of the wheel, so that each snap became the musical note of the spring. The spring being at the same time grasped in a pair of pincers, so as to admit of any alteration in length of the vibrating portion. This system evidently produces a compound sound similar to that of the pipe and the reed, and an alteration in the length of the spring ought therefore to produce the same effect as that of the pipe. In effect the sound produced retains the same pitch as long as the wheel revolves uniformly, but puts on in succession all the vowel qualities, as the effective length of the spring is altered, and that with considerable distinctness, when due allowance is made for the harsh and disagreeable quality of the sound itself.\u201d\nThus Willis maintains two theses : i. that a vowel consists of [at least] two tones, a cord tone and a mouth tone ; 2. that the mouth tone is independent of the cord tone in regard to pitch.\nThe first of these theses led to attempts to determine the pitch of the mouth cavity ; the results will be considered in Section V below.\nThe second thesis was for a long time entirely neglected in favor of another one, although, as I hope to show, it is the one that correctly represents the facts.\nHelmholtz\u2019s theory.\nAccording to Helmholtz the vowels arise from the vibrations of the vocal cords through the strengthening of certain overtones by the resonance of the mouth.\n\u201c We may well suppose, that in tones of the human larynx, as in those of other reed instruments, the overtones would continuously diminish in intensity with rising pitch, if we could observe them without the resonance of the mouth. In fact they correspond to this assumption fairly well in those vowels that are spoken with widely opened, funnel-like mouth-cavities, as in sharp A or \u00c4. kThis relation is however very materially changed by the resonance in the mouth. The more the mouth-cavity is narrowed by the lips, teeth or tongue, the more prominently its resonance appears for tones of very definite pitch, and by just so much more it thus strengthens those overtones in the tone of the vocal cords which approximate the favored degrees of pitch ; and by just so much more the others are weakened. \u2019 \u20191\nThe pitch of the tones for which the mouth resonates best was studied\n\u25a0Helmholtz, Die Lehre v. d. Tonempfindungen, 4. Aufl., 170, Braunschweig 1877.","page":73},{"file":"p0074.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"74\nE. IV. Scripture,\nby Helmholtz by means of tuning forks held before the mouth. The resonance differed for different vowels.\n\u201cThe pitch of the strongest resonance of the mouth depends only on the vowel for whose production it has been arranged, and changes essentially even for small changes in the character of the vowel as for example in various dialects of the same language. On the other hand the resonances of the mouth are almost independent of age and sex. I have found in general the same resonances for men, women and children. What is lacking to the childish and female mouth in capacity can be easily replaced by narrower closure of the opening, so that the resonance can still be as deep as in the larger male mouth. \u2019 \u2019\nAccording to Helmholtz \u201c the vowel sounds are different from the sounds of most musical instruments essentially in the fact that the strength of their overtones depends not only on the nuniber of the overtone but above all on its actual pitch. For example, when I sing the vowel a or the noteEff, the reinforced tone is bt, or the 12th one, and when I sing the same vowel on the note b, it is the second one.\u201d1\nThis view of Helmholtz necessitates the assumption of an accommodation of the resonance tone to the voice tone within quite a range ; thus as the voice tone rises or falls the mouth must also change its tone or be able to extend its resonance to a considerable degree. This assumption was made by Helmholtz, the range of accommodation being supposed to extend /ver as much as an interval of a fifth in music each way from the tone of best resonance. This view has been called the \u201caccommodation theory.\u201d According to this theory the mouth must accommodate itself to one overtone of the voice tone and when this rises or falls to a considerable degree it must readjust itself to some other one in order to keep the resonance tone within a limited range.\nThe difference between the theories of Willis and Helmholtz lies chiefly in the relation between the mouth tone and the voice tone ; for the former there was no relation, for the latter the resonance tone was one of the overtones of the cord tone.\n\u201cWillis\u2019s description of the acoustic movement in the vowels doubtless coincides closely with the truth ; but it gives only the manner in which the motion occurs in the air, and not the corresponding reaction of the ear to this motion. That even such a motion is analyzed by the ear according to the laws of resonance into a series of overtones is shown by the agreement in the analysis of the vocal sound when it is executed and by the resonators.\u201d2\n1\tHelmholtz, as before, 191.\n2\tHei.mhoi.tz, as before, 191.","page":74},{"file":"p0075.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n75\nHelmholtz also devised an apparatus of electric tuning forks and produced vowel-like sounds by combining a fundamental tone with different sets of overtones.\nHelmholtz was greatly influenced in his theory by his views of the action of the ear. The hypothesis that all regular vibratory movements reaching the ear are analyzed by it into a series of harmonics of the fundamental period is an assumption that seems to lead necessarily to the Helmholtz theory. This assumption, however, we must disregard at the present time; the problem concerns the nature of the vibratory movement characterizing a vowel and the solution must be found in an unbiased analysis of the vowel curve ; the question of how the ear acts is a later one.\nPipping\u2019s \u2019 work with Hensen\u2019s instrument (see above, p. 4) led him to the following conclusions.\n\u2018 \u2018 In agreement with Helmholtz I have found that each vowel is distinguished by one or more regions of reinforcement of constant pitch. The intensity of its partial tone is, c\u0153teris paribus, greater as it coincides more accurately with the range of reinforcement.\n\u201c In regard to the range of the reinforcement I cannot agree with Helmholtz. Helmholtz indeed states that the range can be different according to the opening of the mouth, the firmness of walls of the oral cavity, etc. But he lays so little weight on this difference that he does not attempt to use it in the characterization of the different vowels. To judge from page 183 of the Lehre von den Tonempfindungen Helmholtz thinks that the range of reinforcement must extend in general at least a musical fifth above and below, and this is certainly not the case.\n\u201cSung vowels contain only harmonic partial tones. \u2019 \u2019 That is, a vowel produced by singing consists of a series of tones whose vibrations stand in the relations of 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : \u2014.\n\u201c The intensities of the various partial tones do not depend to any essential degree on their ordinal numbers.\u201d That is, in distinction to most musical instruments it is not the fact that the first partial is much the stronger and that the higher partials are in general weaker.\n\u201cThe various vowels differ from each other in ranges of reinforcement which are of different numbers, width and position in the scale of pitch.\u201d That is, one vowel may have two ranges of reinforcement, another three, etc., and these ranges may differ.\nOn a later occasion 2 Pipping believes that the range of accommodation may exceed even the limits allowed by Helmholtz.\n'Pipping, Zur Klangfarbe der gesungenen Vocale, Zt. f. Biologie, 1890 XXVII 77.\n2 Pipping, Zur Lehre von den Vokalkl\u00e4ngen, Zt. f. Biologie, 1895 XXXI 573, 583.","page":75},{"file":"p0076.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"76\nE. IV. Scripture,\nComparison of the two theories.\nThe two conflicting theories require a decision concerning their validity.\nAmong the results that support the view of Willis we may notice those obtained by Donders with the Scott phonautograph.1\n\u201c Each of the fourteen vowels when sung on a constant tone produces a constant curve. . . . \u201c For each vowel the form of the curve changes with the pitch. This result is connected with the peculiarity of the vowels, that their timbre is determined not by overtones of a certain order to the fundamental, but rather by overtones of a nearly constant pitch.\u201d\nThis last statement implies the fact that if the resonance tones of the mouth were overtones of the voice tone bearing a definite relation to it, such as ist, 2d, the curve would remain the same in form no matter what the pitch, just as the curve of vibration for a violin string has a typical form which persists in spite of changes in the pitch of the string. On the other hand if the tone of the mouth is a constant one, as Willis assumes, the combined vibration produced by the voice tone and the mouth tone would change for any change in pitch of the voice tone.\nHermann\u2019s investigations were carried out by transcribing the curves of song from the phonograph. He finds that the essential fact in a vowel is the intermittent or oscillatory blowing of the mouth tone by the voice. Under such circumstances it makes no difference whether the resonance tone coincides with any fraction of the voice tone period or not.2 Hermann thus supports the theory of Willis in asJxting that the mouth tone is completely independent of the voice tone. To this statement Hermann adds that of the intermittence of the voice tone which seems never to have been suspected by previous observers. This new fact of intermittence appears much more clearly in my curves of the spoken a (see Figs- 7) ll> 30) than it does in Hermann\u2019s curves of the sung vowels. Hermann believes that this intermittence is essential to the production of a vowel and that merely adding a constant tone to a complex of tones does not give a vowel.3 This intermittence, however, occurs only in some vowels of low pitch, as in the first portions of the cases of a just mentioned ; it does not occur in the i. Even in the latter portion of my\n1 Donders, Zur Klangfarbe der Vocale, Annalen de Physik u. Chemie, 1864 CXXIII 528.\n2Hermann, Pkonophotogr\u00e0phische Untersuchungen, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 LXXIV 380, 381.\n3 Hermann, Weitere Untersuchungen \u00fc. d. Wesen der Vocale, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1895 LXI 192.","page":76},{"file":"p0077.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n77\ncases of a it is hardly proper to speak of intermittence ; the pressure in the wave from the voice tone is not evenly distributed throughout the period, but there is nothing resembling intermittence. Even in Hermann\u2019s own curves for i as shown, for example, in one of his latest publications,1 there is no such intermittence.\nAccording to Hermann each vowel has one or two fixed mouth tones whose pitch varies within narrow limits if at all ; these tones he calls \u201cFormants.\u201d Thus, the vowel u when sung by a certain person contains not only the voice tone but also one or two mouth tones ; these mouth tones are the same when the same vowel is sung at different pitches.\nHermann has objected to the overtone theory of the mouth tone that in many voices the formant is so high above the voice tone that it cannot be supposed that an overtone of that pitch could possibly be present. Thus as the voice-tone G the vowel i has a strong mouth tone that would correspond to the 28th or 29th partial of the voice tone, whereas such a high partial, if present at all, would be too weak to be heard.2\nA final decision in the case of the vowel a can, I believe, be established on the basis of the curves described above in Section I. The independent tone theory is certainly the only one that will account for this vowel. In the first place the vowels studied were spoken vowels and were open to none of the objections that may be made against sung vowels. In the second place the resonance vibrations can be seen starting at regular intervals and dying away completely in some instances and less completely in others within a single period of a voice tone. Again, the resonance vibration can be seen to remain of constant period while the voice tone rises through a distance of several octaves within one single vowel.\nIn the face of such conclusive evidence it is hard to see any point in which the decision in favor of the theory proposed by Willis and developed by Hermann can possibly be attacked. It is natural to assume that a theory found to be valid for one vowel will be valid for all ; it is, of course, possible that other laws may hold good in other vowels, but until this possibility is proven we can treat all vowels on the independent-tone theory.\nThe noise theory.\nAnother view of the way in which the resonance tone is aroused resembles an older view of the action of organ pipes. \u201c The concomitant resonances [mouth tones] which create or constitute vowel quality are\n1 Hermann, Weitere Untersuchungen \u00fcber it. Wesen der Vocale, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1895 LXI Tafel V.\n^Hermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 274.","page":77},{"file":"p0078.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"78\nE. IV. Scripture,\nanimated, primarily and essentially, by the irregular noises which issue, together with the vocal tone from a speaking or singing glottis, but without it from a whispering one. Some of these are always found capable of affording just the appropriate impulse, and of kindling the resonances of the configuration [mouth cavity].\u201d1 This view is undoubtedly correct as far as whispered vowels are concerned, but it can hardly be supported for spoken vowels. In one respect the case is analogous to that of an ordinary resonator ; by blowing against the opening or by tapping the walls the tone of the resonator can be faintly heard. Thus, in whispering, the vowels can be produced with faint tones. These faint tones are, however, quite different affairs from the strong mouth tones of spoken vowels although they may be of the same pitch. In speaking there must be a stronger force to set the mouth cavity in vibration than the faint noises that accompany the cord tone ; otherwise the mouth tone would be quite overpowered by the cord tone and there would be no noticeable difference between vowels spoken on the same note. Moreover, noises seem to have no power to arouse strong resonances ; thus the noise of s, though loud and produced directly on the edge of the resonance cavity, does not produce any marked resonance vibrations (p. 70). The force that sets the mouth cavity in vibration can only come from the cord tone and the \u201c noise theory \u201d of vowels may be definitely laid aside.\nObservations on the nature of spoken vowels.\nPrevious investigators have had in mind almost exclusively the vowels sung on musical notes. It has been universally assumed th<-t the spoken vowels do not differ essentially from the sung ones. Thus Hermann says, \u201cThe difference between sung and spoken articulation lies exclusively in the fact that the pitch, intensity and duration of the syllables\u2014or more accurately, of the vowels\u2014are governed in song by melody and rhythm and in speech by the laws of emphasis according to meaning and arrangement. In a single vowel there can thus be absolutely no difference between song and speech.\u201d 2\nMy investigations show, I believe, that this view is erroneous.\nIn the first place the voice tones of spoken vowels are seldom of constant pitch. Some are nearly constant in pitch, some fluctuate, some rise and fall in various simple or complicated ways. I have looked over hundreds of vowels in the records and find that there is a typical tone for the whole discourse which occurs in a majority of the vowels, while the others\n\u2019Lloyd, Speech sounds : their nature and causation, Phonet Stud., 1890 III 277.\n2 Hermann und Matthias, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 258.","page":78},{"file":"p0079.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n79\nhave quite different tones. Many of the vowels are fairly constant, but many others vary. Indeed, it is just such changes and fluctuations in pitch and also in intensity that enable the voice to express the character of the thought. Without these changes the speech would be a monotonous sing-song resembling the speech of the deaf who have been taught by the oral method. When words are sung, they lose most of their character ; speech is capable of expressing by its modulations the various emotions and conditions of the individual, whereas the singer has few resources at his command.\nIn the second place vowels have certain characteristic laws of pitch and intensity in certain positions. Thus the a of ai in my curves begins practically at zero in both pitch and intensity. The i has a nearly constant pitch with a slight fall, and a peculiar rise and fall of intensity. Presumably we shall at some time be able to determine the analytical expressions for the vowels and shall find that their properties follow definite laws.\nIt is interesting to note that this change in pitch in the spoken vowels has so generally escaped notice. I know of only one recorded observation that might refer to the subject.\nAristoxenus,1 in discussing zA\u00efj\u00e7t\u00e7\topposes x\u00e9^ac\u00e7 auve/rj\u00e7 to\nxbrjtTt\u00e7 StaoTy\u00dfarizrj. The first term may be translated as \u201cchange in pitch of the voice,\u201d the second as \u201ccontinuous change,\u201d and the last as \u201c change by steps.\u201d The continuous change he considers to be characteristic of speech as opposed to song. \u201cNow the continuous movement is, we assert, the movement of conversational speech, for when we converse the voice moves through a space in such a manner as to seem to rest nowhere.\u201d 2 It is not quite clear to me what he means by \u201c continuous change.\u201d If he had definitely in mind the change in pitch of a vowel within itself, he certainly furnishes an example of most precise hearing and careful observation whereby he anticipates a result arrived at later only by careful experimental methods. I am somewhat inclined to doubt that he had in mind anything more than the general observation that in speech the voice rises and falls irregularly, yet the special statement that the changes are continuous necessarily involves the changes within single vowels.\nOne of the most curious facts observed in the vowels studied in the previous section is the change of the resonance tone. The pitch of the\n\u2022Aristoxenus, Harmonica, I $ 25, p. 8, Meib. The passages are collected in Johnson, Musical pitch and the measurement of internals, Thesis, Baltimore 1896.\n2Aristoxenus, Harmonica, I | 28, p. 8, Meib., quoted in Johnson, The motion Oj the voice in the theory of ancient music, Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc., 1899 XXX 47.","page":79},{"file":"p0080.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"1\n8 o\tE. W. Scripture,\nresonance tone is frequently not a fixed one but one altered according to some law. In most of the cases of the a it begins to change in the latter portion ; in the i it is frequently constant but often falling.\nTo the foregoing account of vowels it is necessary to make some additions. The most important one is the statement that a vowel is not a fixed thing, but a changing phenomenon. There is no such thing as a vowel a with a definite character under all circumstances. Even for the same speaker there are continual changes and variations in this vowel. For different speakers, for different dialects and for different languages the changes become so great that the a finally has little resemblance to the one chosen as a standard. We may say that a large number of our speech sounds may be classed together by a more or less close resemblance and may be designated by the term a. A similar statement would hold good of any speech sound.\nThe changes from a take place in all directions, in voice tone, in mouth tone, in length, etc. By selecting examples properly a continuous series can be made of forms whose members differing but little from their neighbors, reaching from a to any of the other vowels. For example, between a typical a and a typical o all the intermediate vowels may be found corresponding to the position of the mouth between the a position and the o position. \u201c In no language or dialect are the sounds which pass current for one and the same vowel absolutely identical. They vary perceptibly in individual use : and hence ... a vowel is not one single definite sound, but a group of more or less closely resembling sounds which in a given speaking commuity pass current as one vowel. There seems to be no practical limit to the range of this wandering so long as the sounds employed do not actually overlap those of any other vowel which happens to be used in the same language.\u201d1 ..\nMechanical aclioti in producing vowels.\nAlthough it may be regarded as settled that a vowel consists of a cord tone with its overtones and one or more resonance tones from the mouth and possibly from the pharynx,2 there still remains the physical problem of the method in which the cord tone arouses the resonance tone.\nThe mouth cavity with the pharynx and vocal cords maybe considered as a pipe with membranous reeds. The theory of its action will be similar to that of an ordinary reed organ pipe.\nEach vibration of the reed sent a wave of condensation and rarefaction along the pipe. When the pipe is of such a length that this wave is re-\n1\tLloyd, Speech sounds : Their nature and causation, Phonet. Stud., 1890 III 254.\n2\tLloyd, brief note in Proc. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sei., 1891 796.","page":80},{"file":"p0081.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n81\nfleeted back in such a way as to reinforce the vibration of the reed, the resonance tone is a loud one. Thus, when a properly adjusted resonator is placed behind a vibrating fork the tone of the fork is strongly reinforced. The reinforcement is also strong when the resonator coincides in pitch with an overtone of the reed.\nSuch a coincidence between the periods of the pipe tone and the reed tone is not necessary. Each impulse from the reed may be considered as striking the pipe with something of the nature of a blow, whereby the proper tone of the pipe itself may be aroused for an instant. The pipe may thus have its own pitch and be heard, no matter what relation there may be between it and the pitch of the reed. When the blow from the reed is rapidly repeated, both the reed tone and the pipe tone will be heard.\nSuch a method of producing resonance tones has been declared to be impossible hy Hensen,1 who remarks that air from a reed pipe cannot arouse a resonance tone. The experiment on which he bases this statement consisted in placing a resonator at the end of a reed pipe. At a certain pressure of air the pipe sounded its own tone, at a different pressure it was silent. The resonator sounded only when the pipe was silent. Nevertheless there were occasions when both the pipe tone and the resonance tone appeared together ; these were called by Hensen unsuccessful experiments. We ought perhaps to call them rather the successful ones.\t'\nTo these experiments and deductions Hermann replied that a labial pipe can be used to sound a reed pipe, and some experiments were made to demonstrate the fact.2 I have attempted in another way to show that a series of puffs of air of any periodicity may be used to sound a labial pipe of any pitch.\nA disc with its edge cut into waves forming approximately a sine-curve was rotated by an electric motor at any desired speed. Its edges passed between the ends of two pieces of rubber tubing so arranged that the air blown into one of them passed directly into the other one if the waves of the disc permitted ; the position was so chosen that the waves of the disc regularly interrupted the air current completely. The end of the rubber tubing was flattened and placed so as to blow against the edge of a piece of brass pipe stopped at the other end. The experiment began with the disc at rest. A current of air was blown through the tubing ; the pipe gave forth a tone. The disc was then set in rotation ; the tone\n'Hensen, Die Harmonie in den Vocalen, Zt. f. Biol., 1891 XXVIII 39.\n2 Hermann, Weitere Untersuchungen \u00fc. d. Wesen d. Vocale, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1895 LX I 195.","page":81},{"file":"p0082.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"82\nE. W. Scripture,\nof the pipe was regularly intermitted. As the disc moved faster, this intermittence became more rapid. Finally, the intermittence itself was heard as a tone in addition to the pipe tone. Thus an intermittent air current, such as is employed for producing tones directly, can be used to produce a pipe tone in addition.\nI have even succeeded in arousing the resonance of a closed tube by blowing through an artificial larynx. The artificial larynx was made by\nbinding a piece of thin soft rubber around the end of a glass tube. Two opposite points of the thin-walled rubber tube thus made were each caught between the thumb and finger; the tube was then stretched till the sides come together. A blast of air through the tube set these edges in vibration and produced a tone. By placing the edges at the right spot over the mouth of a bottle or a test-tube or a key (Fig. 74) the resonance tone of the latter could be distinctly heard.\nWhen the edges of the artificial larynx are properly placed against the opening of a small tube such as the hole of a door-key, the tone of the key is heard loudly in addition to that of the artificial larynx. The pitch of the larynx tone may be altered at will. This experiment illustrates with great vividness the method in which vowels are actually produced in the vocal organs.\nIt is not so easy to arouse a tube of low pitch such as a bottle in this way, because the volume of air passing through the artificial larynx is not large.\nIt can thus be regarded as definitely settled that the current of air from a reed can be used to arouse a resonance tone in a cavity properly adjusted to receive the air. The Willis theory of vowel production is therefore at least a physical possibility.\nTo this statement we may add that the reed tone and the resonance tone may vary independently of each other, but that the resonance tone is loudest when its pitch is higher than that of the reed tone.\nWillis\u2019s view of the way in which the resonance tone was superimposed on the reed tone is very explicit. \u201cAccording to Euler, if a single","page":82},{"file":"p0083.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n83\npulsation be excited at the bottom of a tube closed at one end, it will travel to the mouth of this tube with the velocity of sound. Here an echo of the pulsation will be formed which will run back again, be reflected from the bottom of the tube, and again present itself at the mouth where a new echo will be produced, and so on in succession till the motion is destroyed by friction and imperfect reflection. . . . The effect therefore will be a propagation from the mouth of the tube of a succession of equidistant pulsations alternately condensed and rarefied, at intervals corresponding to the time required for the pulse to travel down the tube and back again ; that is to say, a short burst of the musical note corresponding to a stopped pipe of the length in question, will be produced.\u201d1\nThe true view of the action of the mouth in producing a resonance tone seems to be the following one. The sudden puff of air from an explosive opening of the cords may be considered to act as a piston compressing the air before it in the mouth cavity. The air acts as a spring by its re-sistence to compression and drives the piston back beyond its position of equilibrium ; the resistance to dilatation draws it back, and so a vibratory movement is set up. Under these circumstances the air acts merely as a spring ; the form of the cavity is immaterial and the period of vibration remains the same, provided the capacity be not v,Tied. The single impulse of the piston thus makes the resonator a source of vibration, whose period remains practically constant but whose amplitude steadily diminishes from loss of energy mainly by communication to the external air. Such vibrations are seen in the curves for a in Section II above. This statement is an adaptation of that given by Rayleigh for resonators in general.\nThe question arises as to the period of the tone thus produced by the resonator.\nThere are cases in which the Helmholtz view of the action of the mouth cavity might seem to have a possibility of correctness. If we assume (1) that a uniform condition has been attained, (2) that the natural period of the resonator does not differ greatly from that of the cord period, and (3) that the cord vibrations are of not too explosive a nature, it follows that the effect of the resonator can only be to modify the intensity and phase of the partials of the cord note. The partial or partial nearest to the natural periods of the mouth cavity will be reinforced and they can be found from the cord by the Fourier analysis.\nUnder the assumptions made above the vibration of the resonance cavity is a forced one, and the conclusion concerning the section of the\n1 Willis, as before, 243.","page":83},{"file":"p0084.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"84\nE. W. Scripture,\nmouth cavity is necessarily correct.1 The first and second assumptions made above have been explicitly stated by Rayleigh, who concludes that both the Willis and the Helmholtz ways of treating the action of the mouth cavity are legitimate and not inconsistent. \u201c When the relative pitch of the mouth tone is low, so that, for example, the partial of the larynx note most reinforced is the second or the third, the analysis by Fourier\u2019s series is the proper treatment. But when the pitch of the mouth tone is high, and each succession of vibrations occupies only a small fraction of the complete period, we may agree with Hermann that the resolution by Fourier\u2019s series is unnatural, and that we may do better to concentrate our attention upon the actual form of the curve by which the complete vibration is expressed.\u201d2 The two forms of treatment imply that the resonance tone is to be considered in the one case as a free vibration of the air in the cavity, and in the other case as a forced vibration. Some cases of the / (Figs. 44 and 53) may be reconciled with the Helmholtz view, the resonance tone being an overtone of the cord tone and changing with it. The cases of a and most of those of i are decidedly inconsistent with the overtone theory. Possibly the variation from the overtone theory arises from the explosive manner in which the cords open. The general description of their action for a probably holds good even when the resonance tone is only about an octave above the cord tone ; each puff of air is stronger at the start and fades away, setting the air in the resonance chamber into free instead of forced vibration. This general characteristic can be traced in each a even to the point where the resonance tone is slightly less than the octave of the cord tone, as in Fig. 11. We are probably justified in concluding that the Willis theory of the production of vowels holds good universally.\nV. The mouth tone in vowels.\nDonders sought to determine these tones by noting the pitch of the mouth cavity when the various vowels were whispered.3\nHelmholtz4 and Auerbach5 by holding tuning forks before the mouth when it had been fixed for a certain vowel have found those whose tones are most strongly reinforced. The mouth acts as a resonator and the tone most strongly reinforced is that to which the mouth is tuned. The\n1\tRayleigh, Theory of Sound, \u00a748, 66, 322k, 397, London ; 1894, 1896.\n2\tRayleigh, as before, I 397.\n3\tDonders, Ueber d. Natur, d. Vokale, Archiv f. d. holl\u00e4nd. Beitr\u00e4ge z. Natur, u. Heilkunde, 1858 I 157.\n\u00abHelmholtz, Lehre v. d. Tonempfindungen, 4. Aufl., 171, Braunschweig 1877.\n5 Auerbach, Untersuchungen \u00fc. d. Natur, des Vokalklanges, Diss., Berlin 1876.","page":84},{"file":"p0085.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experbnental phonetics.\n85\nobjections arise : that there is no certainty that the mouth is really in the vowel position desired ; and that the mouth may resonate to several tones. The adjustment of the mouth may be quite different when no expiration is occurring from what it is during whispering or speaking or singing. 1 At any rate we have no assurance that it is the same. I quite agree with Hermann that the only trustworthy determinations of the mouth tone are those obtained by actual whispering, singing or speaking. Whispered vowels were examined by Donders, Helmholtz and Hermann.\nThe pitch of the mouth tone has been studied in a different way by Lloyd. The mouth, as an excentric cavity, would naturally have two resonance tones : the tone of the \u201c porch \u201d or narrow front part, and the tone of the \u201c chamber\u201d or rear part.2 A combination of a tube and a cylinder can be made to give a vowel-like sound when the sizes are properly selected. Lloyd produced various vowel-like sounds and determined the tones of the tube and the cylinder. The vowel-character of a sound is, according to Lloyd, essentially determined by the relations of pitch between these two tones, or among several tones when there are more than two.\nLloyd3 has also mapped out the forms of the mouth cavity involved in different vowels and has calculated the tones to which they would resonate. Thus for the vowels in the following words he has calculated the resonance tones as indicated : piece 2816, pit 2500, rein 2112, there 1508, man 1431, half io%2, law 834, note 623-444, put 528, blue 314.\nAnother method used in seeking the mouth-tone consists in analyzing the curve of vibration representing the vowel into a series of curves representing simple tones and determining which of these tones above the voice tone is apparently the loudest.\nA simple tone is defined as one for which the deviation of the material particle from its position of rest is given by an expression of the form\n2 7Zt\ny = a sin sjp\nwhere y is the deviation at the moment t, a the amplitude or maximum value of y, and 7The time of one complete vibration of the particle through its positive and negative phases. A curve of this kind is called a \u201c sinu-\n1\tHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLV1I 374.\n2\tLloyd, Speech sounds ; their nature arid causation, Phonetische Studien, 1890 III 275, 278; 1890 IV 39 ; 1891 V 125.\n3\tLloyd, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., March 1898.","page":85},{"file":"p0086.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"86\nE. IV. Scripture,\nsoid \u201d or a \u201charmonic \u2019\u2019 and such a vibration is said to be sinusoidal or harmonic. The exact expression for such a vibration must give the phase from which the values of t are measured ; this is done in\ny =\na sin\n2 T.t\n~T\n\u00a3)\nwhere s indicates the time between t = o and the next preceding moment when y = o.\nA number r of sinusoids superimposed give a vibratory movement in which\ny=TnZ\\ An sin\nIt can be proven that any single-valued finite periodic function with the period Tcan be expressed by a series of sinusoids whose periods are T, 772, 773 \u2014 . This is generally known as Fourier\u2019s theorem.1 The analysis of such a function into a series of sinusoids is known as the Fourier analysis.\nLikewise a number of sinusoids may be added to produce a vibration resembling some given curve. Such a synthesis can be performed by machines constructed for the purpose, for example, the machine of Preece and Stroh2 or that of Michelson.3 4 The curves produced by Preece and Stroh somewhat resemble the curves of vowels, but so dis -tantly that they indicate the impropriety of considering a vowel curve as a sum of a series of harmonics.\nA vowel curve gives by the Fourier analysis a series of sinusoids of various amplitudes.1 Those of greatest amplitude are assumed to be the most prominent tones in the complex tone of the vowel. It is also assumed that the one or more stronger tones after the fundamental are the tones of the mouth.\nAs an objection to this method we are entitled to say, that the Fourier analysis is in this case a means of representing a vibratory movement by a formula. We may add that it is nothing more than an interpolation formula by which the value of y can be found for any desired instant of\n1 Fourier, Theorie analytique de la chaleur, Ch. III, Paris 1822.\n8 Preece and Stroh, Studies in acoustics. /. On the synthetic examination of vmoel sounds, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 1879 XXVIII 358.\n3\tMichelson, A new harmonic analyzer, Amer. Jour. Sei., 1898 (4) V 1.\n4\tThe scheme for the computation and various essential practical devices are given by HERMANN, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLVII 47-","page":86},{"file":"p0087.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n87\ntime. It is merely one case of a more general method1 of interpolation by a periodic series ; it is thus considered in works on the adjustment of measurements.2\nSuch an interpolation formula remains simply a mathematical tool unless it is found to express the actual nature of the phenomenon measured. It has been assumed by practically all writers, that all musical sounds are really combinations of a series of sinusoidal partial tones : for example, it can be readily demonstrated that a violin string vibrates not only as a whole, but also in halves, thirds, quarters, etc. It is also presumably true that each of these parts produces a sinusoidal vibration of the air. Thus, the peculiar tone of the violin is presumably really the sum of a series of approximately sinusoidal tones. The Fourier analysis in such a case undoubtedly expresses the nature of the tone.\nIn the case of sung vowels the assumption that the vocal cords vibrate like reeds, and the further assumption that the mouth acts as a resonator reinforcing one or more of the partial tones of the cord would justify the use of the Fourier analysis for finding the partial tones of the voice-tone and also the tones reinforced by the mouth, provided these assumptions were proved to be correct.\nThe vocal cords are certainly to be treated as membranous reeds. In the main their vibrations can be supposed to follow the usual laws.\nThe other assumption, that the mouth acts also as a resonator to reinforce some of the partial tones of the cord vibration, is certainly not justified (p. 73). The main effect of the mouth is to impose a vibration of its own upon the vibration coming from the cord. The reinforcement of partial tones may possibly be present, but it is certainly not prominent. The Fourier analysis would be applicable only if the mouth tone were coincident with one of the partial tones of the voice tone ; this is, at least generally, not the case in song, as has been indicated by Willis, Donders and Hermann, and is certainly not the case in speech as is proven by my curves for a. With a mouth tone not coincident with a partial tone the Fourier analysis may, in a vowel of constant pitch, indicate a reinforcement of the nearest partial vibration, or it may show reinforcement of the two nearest partials above or below. The analysis can thus be used to indicate the approximate pitch of the mouth tone in such a case, although it may not coincide with a partial of the voice tone.3\n'Gauss, Theoria interpolationis methodo nova tractata, Werke III 265, 1876.\n2 Weinstein, Physikalische Maassbestimmungen, I 486, Berlin 1886.\n3Hermann, Phonophotog'aphische Untersuchungen, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 276.","page":87},{"file":"p0088.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"88\nE. JV. Scripture,\nWith vowels of changing pitch, as in my examples of a, any attempt to apply the Fourier analysis would be an absurdity. In this vowel the pitch of the voice tone changes from vibration to vibration. The analysis would be thus utterly different for each vibration and would indicate a different mouth tone every time, whereas the reonance vibrations can be seen in the curves to remain constant.\nIt is an imaginable hypothesis that, since the period of the voice tone in a rising or a falling vowel is not the constant T but some value f(f) which steadily changes, we might make an analysis into a series of sinusoids whose periods change likewise. We would thus have\n/ 2znt \\\nim-'-)-\nThe expression for /(/) would differ for different vowels. Such an analysis might accurately represent the case when a musical sound composed of a fundamental with overtones is reproduced on a phonograph whose speed is constantly accelerated. It might also be applicable to the analysis of a glide produced on a musical instrument like a violin. The curve, however, would be of the same form in each period, which\u2014as Donders first pointed out and I have abundantly shown\u2014is not the case in the vowels.\nOther methods of finding the pitch of the mouth tone may be used. The method that suggests itself at once is simply that of measuring the length of a wave of the mouth tone. This could best be done in my curves by measuring the length of a set of waves and dividing by the number ; though the measurement could not be made to a finer unit than o.i\"1\" this reduces the error for a set of 5 waves to \u00a3 of o. imm, or o.o2mm. This method is applicable only when the vowel curve shows regular vibrations within a single period of the voice tone. When the curve shows irregular or complicated vibrations, some other method would be used.\nHermann has used three other methods : (1) the centroid method, (2) the method of proportional measurement, and (3) the counting of the vibrations when they exactly fill one period of the voice tone.1 The last method amounts to the same thing as mine for a particular case. The proportional method is also practically the same for other cases. The centroid method seems to give only approximate results.2 The term \u201ccentroid\u201d seems to me preferable to \u201ccenter of gravity\u201d used by Hermann.\n1\tHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1890 XLVII 359.\n2\tHermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fc ger), 1893 LIII 51 ; 1894 LVIII 276.","page":88},{"file":"p0089.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in expermental phonetics.\n89\nOf all the methods and investigations employed for determining the mouth tone those of Hermann1 are entitled to by far the weightiest consideration. He finds for u (00) two tones, one in the first part of the first octave and one in the second octave, for o (au), and a a tone in the second octave which rises in pitch as 0 changes to a, for \u00e4 and \u00eb a tone in the second octave and one in the third octave, for \u00d6, \u00fc and i a very high tone which is in the middle of the third octave for \u00f6, at the end of that octave for \u00fc and in the fourth octave for i. The octaves are numbered in the German fashion, middle c being in the first octave. The resonance tones for my examples of a and i are given on pages 55 and 56, and those of some other vowels in Section III.\nThese data give only the approximate regions in which we may expect to find the mouth tone. It is unquestionably true that within these regions the mouth tone will vary for different dialects and different conditions of speech.\nThe mouth tone need not be a fixed one though it is generally so. A rise and fall of the mouth tone might readily be used as a factor of expression in speech. Several examples of such changes have been given in Section II.\nIt seems fairly well established that in addition to the cord tone there may be several resonance tones from the mouth cavity. Lloyd distinguishes at least two : that of the front part of the mouth (the porch resonance) and that of the whole mouth (the fundamental resonance).2 3 There may be also a resonance tone from the pharynx.8 The various vowels arise from different \u201cradical ratios\u2019\u2019 between the porch tone and the fundamental mouth tone,4 5 while it is possible to change the pitch of both to some extent. Various other tones may arise from the configuration of the mouth and the coexistence of the tones already mentioned.8\nAlthough Lloyd\u2019s supposition of the possible presence of a number of resonances in the mouth cavity6 * may be partly justified, yet one of these resonances must far exceed all others in prominence in order to produce the constancy in form and period of the resonance vibrations seen in the\n'Hermann, Phonophotographische Untersuchungen, Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1894 LVIII 270.\n2\tLloyd, Speech sounds ; their nature and causation, Phonet. Stud., 1890 III 261.\n3\tLloyd, Speech sounds ; their nature and causation, Phonet. Studien, 1891 IV 294 ! also a note in Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1891 p. 796.\n'Lloyd, Speech sounds ; their nature and causation, Phonet. Stud., 1891 IV 52.\n5\tSame, 207.\n6\tLloyd, Speech sounds ; their nature and causation, Phonet. Stud., 1890 III 261;\n1891 IV 52, 206.","page":89},{"file":"p0090.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"9\u00b0\nE. W. Scripture,\ncurves examined in Section II. It is doubtful if there are more than two resonances of the mouth that are of any noticeable strength ; as explained above (p. 83) the air in a resonance cavity acts as a spring whose period depends on the size while the form of the cavity is immaterial for the chief resonance tone. We must add that, although the additional resonance tones and the overtones of the cord tone may not appear in any record, they undoubtedly give characteristic colors to the final result.\nThe importance of the pharyngeal resonance has been strongly emphasized by Marichelle.1\nThis author maintains the following theses : A. The capacity of the buccal resonator does not exercise a characteristic influence on the pitch of the vowels. The statement that the mouth cavity in front of the elevation of the tongue has no influence is based.on an experiment in filling the cavity of the palate with wax and finding that the vowels O and OU can still be pronounced. Compensation for the size of the resonating cavity by change in the lip opening is avoided by forming the opening in a card placed before the mouth. These experiments seem to me too inaccurate and so contrary to our knowledge of the action of resonating cavities that we cannot accept them. Moreover, a vowel like O is\u2014to my ear at least \u2014distinctly modified in expression by any change of the mouth cavity although it still remains an O until the change is a great one. This can be conveniently tested by inserting two fingers in the mouth ; the O changes in expression and can be readily made into an OU by the proper manipulation. B. The dimension of the lip opening constitutes only a general vague and unstable indication of the vowel. C. The separation of the jaws does not sufficiently characterize the vocal sounds. D. The displacement of the tongue forward or backward furnishes no precise and essential information on the character [timbre] of the vowels. It is possible to produce all the vowels with practically any position of the tongue. \u201c Here again the physiological description, as comprehended generally, gives only accessory facts and no characteristic ones. \u2019 \u2019 These three statements are true in a vague way but they do not prove that the vowel character is independent of these factors ; the vowels undoubtedly depend essentially and directly on them. Marichelle\u2019s point, however, seems to be that the essential factor is the size of the resonance cavity and not its exact form ; and in this he is presumably correct.\nAccording to Marichelle three distinct regions of the mouth are used in forming vowels :\t1. the anterior tongue-palate cavity ; 2. the pos-\n1 Marichelle, La parole d\u2019apr\u00e8s le trac\u00e9 du phonographe, 27, Paris 1897.","page":90},{"file":"p0091.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n91\nterior tongue-plate cavity ; 3. the lip opening. The characteristic tones are modified by a. the nature of the walls, whether soft or hard ; b. the capacity of the posterior resonator ; c. the degree of opening of the tongue-palate orifice ; d. the lip opening.\nMarichelle seems to be quite correct in insisting on the importance of the posterior cavity ; it is the one into which the vibrations of the cords pass immediately and it undoubtedly acts as a strong resonator. It would be somewhat rash, however, to say that the most prominent resonance vibration comes from this cavity. It may be suggested that the vowel is a complex of resonance tones of which the pharyngeal tone would be one, the anterior mouth tone another, and so on.\nThe assumption of Pipping1 that the chief resonance tone of the vowels may be derived from the resonance of the chest seems to have little justification. The tone of the chest is a low one\u2014my own has a frequency of about too complete vibrations a second\u2014as can readily be determined by singing the scale ; the chest resonance occurs only on very low notes. Its low pitch can also be heard by tapping the chest as in auscultation. The chest possibly resonates when very low tones are sung or spoken, but the pitch of ordinary speech is generally quite above it.\nI believe we shall not go very far wrong if we assume that the entire mouth cavity may give rise to one resonance tone, the rear portion (pharyngeal) to another and the anterior portion to a third. Such an assumption has been made the basis of my attempt on p. 56 to explain the formation of ai.\nVI. The cord tone in vowels.\nSimple tones have three fundamental properties : pitch, intensity and duration. The so-called \u201ctimber\u201d is not a property of simple tones, but the resulting effect of combinations of tones. In the present section it is proposed to discuss the cord tone in various vowels in regard to pitch and intensity. For this purpose only the fundamental tone of the vowel will be considered and no regard will be paid to the particular form of the curve resulting from the overtones of the cord tone and the superposition of the resonance tones. We will also assume that the vibration of the cords involves the usual supposition that the force of attraction to the position of equilibrium varies as the distance from that position. In such a case we can represent the fundamental tone by the equation\n2 xt\ny = F(0 sin/(7)\n1 Pipping, Zur rhonetik d. finnischen Sprache, M\u00e9m. de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 finno-ougrienne, XIV, Helsingfors 1899.","page":91},{"file":"p0092.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"92\nE. JV. Scripture,\nwhere /(/) is the expression for the period of the vibration and F(t) that for the amplitude. In this general expression the period and the amplitude may be constant or may vary with the time.\nThe pitch function.\nA vowel during whose course the pitch remains constant can be said to be of \u201csustained\u201d pitch. If T\u2019is the period of vibration of the cords, we have in the ideal case\ny = E(t) sin \u2014.\nVowels of sustained or constant pitch are not very common in the cases I have studied. Most vowels seem to rise or fall, yet some of them are approximately constant. The vowel i as found in see, needle, ai, etc., is approximately a sustained vowel aliiiuugh it generally falls slightly. The following measurements of i in see are typical : 2.3, 2.3, 2.4, 2.4, 2.8* ... to the 22d vibration, 2.4* to the 42d vibration, 2.1\u201d to the end at the 64th vibration.\nThe rather unusual case of two vowels of sustained pitch forming a diphthong is found in the word my of the phrase With my bow and arrow. The a has a constant period of 5.617 and the i that of 3.6* . The a has also a constant amplitude of o.4rara; the i, beginning with o.5mm, falls to o as usual in ai at the end of a word (see Section II.).\nThe diphthong ai is of nearly constant pitch throughout most of its length in the two cases of thy (Figs. 62, 67).\nNearly all vowels in the earlier parts of words in the record studied (p. 14), whether preceded by a consonant or not, are characterized by a rising pitch. In such a case the period is not a constant T but a function of the elapsed time, /(/). A typical example of this kind of vowel is found in the a of ai (Section II.). A determination of the particular form of f{f) for various vowels is a highly important matter, as different vowels and different manners of speaking are possibly characterized by different forms of this rise in pitch. Some of the cases of a suggest the form f(t) = he\"\u201c, a formula which expresses many of the phenomena found in nature.\nWhen the rise in pitch (decrease in period) is proportional to the elapsed time, we have\nwhere T0 is the period of the first vibration and m the factor of proportionality. Such a vowel is found in the a of the 4th example of /above","page":92},{"file":"p0093.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n93\n(p. 28 and Fig. 29). During an interval of i8oa its period is shortened by 5-S' , or at the rate of 0.03/. Its cord equation on the suppositions made above would be (in seconds)\ny = F(f) sin\n2\u201ct\n9 \u2014 0.03/ '\nIn the latter portions of words the vowels in the records I have examined are generally nearly constant in pitch, with often a slight fall as the intensity decreases. Typical examples are found in the cases of i in ai (Section II.). This slight fall in pitch need not necessarily indicate a relaxation in the tension of the vocal cords ; as the force of the expired current of air decreases, the frictional forces involved in the cord vibration may gradually lengthen the period. Yet the amount of fall is generally too great to be due to anything but a relaxation of the cords.\nThe amplitude function.\nThe intensity of a sound wave is to be defined as the amount of work performed by the passage of the wave through a unit surface in a unit time. It is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude and inversely proportional to the period. Complete calculations of the intensity of vowels under various circumstances may eventually be made ; in the present investigation, however, the amplitude has been taken as the most convenient index of intensity.\nIn the records studied I have rarely found a vowel with a constant amplitude. Vowels at the beginnings of words show invariably a rise in amplitude. This rise may continue until the vowel ends in some other sound. Such is the case in a of ai (Section II. ), and in a of and in thread and needle. Most vowels, however, rise to a maximum and then fall ; as is typically illustrated in a (p. 67). Such vowels might possibly be called circumflex vowels. Even in the middle of the word the vowel has a tendency to the circumflex form, as is well shown in most cases of the i of ai. The rise and fall may be quite elaborate as in the case of the doubly circumflex vowel o of bom ; this long o, however, might with propriety be considered a molecular union of two o's in succession.\nIn a vowel of constant amplitude represented by the sinusoidal vibration we would have /'(/) = a and\n2 Tit\n7=\u00c6Sm TW-\nIn a rising vowel R(i) might take some such form as mt, whence we 21-t\n7U)\u2018\nwould have y \u2014 tnt sin","page":93},{"file":"p0094.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"94\nE. IV. Scripture,\nIn a circumflex vowel we may assume the amplitude to be of sinusoid form whereby\n2 rt\nF(t) = E sin \u2014\nand\ny\n2-t . 2T.t = E sin \u2014 sm\n* /(0\nwhere 2? would be the maximum amplitude and s the length of the vowel. When the pitch is constant the curve will have the form\n27:/ 2T.t\ny = \u00c6sin \u2014sin \u2122 \u2022 *\ts i\nI have found one vowel, a in said in the line I, said the sparrow, that can be with close approximation considered as a circumflex vowel of constant pitch. Its equation is (in seconds and millimeters)\n2T.t . 21tt\ny = 0.5 sin ------\u2014 sm----------\no. io8 0.0053\nIt does not fill a complete period of circumflexion as it is suddenly cut short by the s of sparrow.\nAmong the hundred or so English vowels that I have inspected, I have been unable to find one that can with any close approximation be considered as steady in intensity and constant in pitch. Thus a vowel of\n27r/\nthe form y = a sin \u2014 must be a rare one. Some vowels during part of\ntheir course are of this form, but a change of some kind seems characteristic at some moment. Even such approximations have been found only in the interior of words, that is, with boundaries of consonants or of vowels with the vocal organs already in action. It seems to be the rule in English that a vowel following a pause shall be a rising or crescendo one, and one preceding a pause shall be a falling or diminuendo one.\nSequence of cord tones.\nThere seems to be for a particular voice on a particular occasion certain tones around which the cord tones group themselves. Boeke found that in ordinary speech his cord tone ranged from 181 to 256 complete vibrations.1\nIn the first stanza of Cock Robin the general tone seems to be one with a period of 5.3CT (about 190 vibrations).\n\u25a0Boeke, Mikroskopische Phonogrammstudien, Arch. f. d. g\u00abs. Physiol. (Pfl\u00fcger), 1891 L 297.","page":94},{"file":"p0095.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n95\nIn addition to this a tone with a period of 7.0\u00b0' (about 143 vibrations, making a musical interval of a fourth below the general tone) has a tendency to appear for the sonants of lower pitch and another tone with a period of I.80, (about 560 vibrations, making a musical interval of a duodecime above the general tone) for the sonants of higher pitch.\nThe periods of the various sonants, as far as I have been able to determine them in this stanza, are given in thousandths of a second by the figures below them in the following quotation :\nWh o\tk i lied C o ck R 0 b i n\n3.3\t1.8\t4.2\t1.8 5.3 5.6 8.4\nI, s ai d th e sp a rr ow,\n18 to 4\t5.3\t5.3\t5.32.85.2\nW i th\tm y\tbow\ta nd a rr ow\n5-3 2-i\t5-3\t5-6~3-6\t7-\u00b0\t5-3\t4-22.57.0\nI k i lied C o ck R o b i n.\n12 to 4\t5.6\t7.0 to 5.3\t3.93.94.25.68.8\nIt may be suggested that the melodiousness of speech must depend to a great degree on the musical sequence of the cord and resonance tones.\nVII. Vf.rse-analysis of the ist stanza of Cock Robin.\nAs stated on p. 1 these researches were begun in order to settle the controversy in regard to the quantitative character of English verse. A nursery rhyme was selected as being verse in the judgment of all classes of people for many ages. When compared with some of what many of us now consider to be the best verse, it shows various defects, but these defects are typical of the usual deviations from our present standards and are, moreover, not defects according to other standards. It is also a fact that our notions of verse are largely derived from the rhymes heard in childhood.\nAn analysis of the sounds of the first stanza is given in the four tables on the adjacent pages.\nThe first column gives the sounds in the phonetic transcription used by ViETOR.1 The second column gives the duration of each sound as determined by measurements of the curves in the records as described on p. 13. The third column gives the period of the cord tone, and the fourth gives the amplitude of the vibration in the tracing (p. 20), not the amplitude of the vibration on the gramophone plate or of the move-\n\u25a0Vietor, Elemente der Phonetik, 3. Aufl., Leipzig 1894.","page":95},{"file":"p0096.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"9<5\nJS. If. Scripture,\nLine i : Who killed Cock Robin l\n\t5\ta\t.1 O\t\t\nSound.\tiration in the >andths of a second.\ttch (period lousandths t a second).\ttensity (maj jm amplituc in mm.).\t0 \u00a3 it it 3 3\tRemarks.\n\tQ\tS\u20195\t= E\t\u00a3\t\na\t>IO\t\t\t\tVery short sound, not distinguishable in the record, not over lo<r in length. Compare with h on p. 60.\nH\t189\t3-3\tO.4\tstrong\tForcible vowel, large amplitude in earlier portion, rises somewhat in pitch, average period 3.3. Compare with \u00fb on p. 63.\nk\t119\t\t\t\tAppears in the record as a straight line.\ni\t154\t1.8\t0.6\tstrong\tLong vowel, large amplitude throughout, double circumflex in amplitude (p. 93). The high pitch of this i is in contrast with that of killed in the 4th 'ine (below)\ni\t74\t1.8\t0.1\t\tCompare p. 65.\nd\tO\t\t\t\tNo sound of d can be heard in this record ; the record plate speaks \u201c Who kill Cock Robin ? \u201d\nk\t53\t\t\t\tAppears in the record as a straight line.\n\u00e0\t126\t4.2\to-5\tweak\tRises somewhat in pitch to 4.2 in the main portion, weak on account of lowness in pitch.\n*\t70\t\t\t\tThe vibrations of the \u00e0 are suddenly cut short by a few vibrations of a different form that rapidly decrease in amplitude. In listening to the record plate the ear hears no glide between A and h ; the word seems to be simply and distinctly k\u00e4k and not AAaA. This glide seems to be, to the ear, an essential part of the A. The cords are still vibrating while the mouth is changing from the A position to the A position.\nk\t31\t\t\t\tStraight line measured from * to r; there is no pause between k and r.\nr\t74\t1.8\to-3\t\tVery distinctly and heavily rolled r ; pseudobeats are apparent. Compare p. 69.\nA\t140\t5-3\t0.5\tstrong\tOf very low but constant pitch ; steady rise in intensity till the vowel is cut short by b ; forcible on account of length and amplitude.\n\t\t\t\t\t\nb\t49\t\t\t\tStraight line from A to i. Compare p. 67.\ni\t56\t5.6\to-3\tweak\tShort but distinctly heard ; weak on account of shortness, lowness and faintness.\nn\t74\t8-4\t0.2\t\tFalls in pitch and amplitude.\n\t770\t\t\t\t","page":96},{"file":"p0097.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n97\nLine 2 : I, said the sparrow.\n*u c 3 O S'.\tI Duration in thousandths of a second.\tPitch (period in , thousandths of 1 a second).\tIntensity (maximum ampli* tude in mm.).\tSyllable effect.\tRemarks.\nai \u20221 s\t452 210 ?\ti8 to 4\t0.7\tstrong\tFull analysis on p. 16 j strong by length, pitch of i and amplitude. Very brief sound, no trace in record.\ne\ti\u00b05\t5-3\t0.5\tweak\tRather long and loud, but low in pitch.\n,t\t8l\t5-3\t0.1\t\tPitch falls from 5.3.\ndh\t32\t?\t>0.1\t\tVery weak vibrations.\nn. sp\t84 273\t5-3\t0.2\tweak\tImpossible to distinguish between the two sounds in the tracing ; the s is heard as a brief sound.\n*\t18\ti-9\t0.4\t\tDistinct sound different from the following a.\nce\t170\t5-3\t0-5\tstrong\tConstant very low pitch but steadily increasing amplitude ; falls suddenly in- intensity during 5<r to r ; no sound of a as stated in Vietor, p. 115 ; strong on account of length and amplitude.\nr\tII\t2.8\t0.2\t\tClearly marked vibrations ; the rolling of the r can be distinctly heard. Compare p. 69.\n\u00d6\t294 i\t5-2\t0.6\tstrong\tVery long vowel of constant pitch, but of rising and then falling intensity (p. 93) ; strong by length and amplitude ; followed without pause by \u00ab of next line.\nment of the cords. The fifth column gives what I consider to be the character of each syllable, whether strong or weak ; the judgment is based on the sound of the gramophone record, aided by a study of the tables.\nThe elements in speech whose rhythmical arrangement is the essential of verse as contrasted with prose are : i, quality ; 2, duration or length ; 3, pitch ; and 4, intensity. The element of quality consists in the nature of the sound as a complex of tones and noises producing a definite effect as a speech-sound. Length, pitch and intensity are properties of the speech-sound that can be varied without destroying its specific nature, that is, without changing the quality. These four elements can be varied independently.\nIt seems to be sufficiently well settled that, in addition to variations of quality, that is, of the speech-sounds, the essential change in Greek verse was one of pitch. I have observed a similar characteristic, in Japanese","page":97},{"file":"p0098.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"98\nE. W. Scripture,\nLine 3 : With my bow and arrow.\nSound. 1\tDuration in thousandths of a second.\tPitch (period in thousandths of a second).\tI Intensity (maximum amplitude in mm.).\t\t1 j Syllable effect.\n\u00dc\t108\t5-3\t0.2\t\t\ni\t60\t2.1\t0.4\t\tstrong\ndh\t56\tp\t0.1\t\t\nm\t74\t5-3\t0.1\t\t\n\u00e4\t179\t5.6\t0.4-\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tstrong\ni\tii2\t3-6\t0.5 J\t\t\ni1\t\t\t\t\t\nb J\t140\t\t\t\t\n\u00d6\t490\t7.0\t0.4\t\tstrong\n\u00ab /\t11\t-\t\t\t\n* l\t382 i\t7-7\u20145-3\t0.2\t\tweak\n\u00bb f\tl\t5-3\t0.1\t\t\nd\t18\t\t\t\t\n*\t102\t5-3\t0.4\t\t\n\u00a3E\t189\t4.2\t03\t\tstrong\nr\t39\t2-5 (?)\t0.1\t\t\n0\t331\t7.0\t0.6\t\tstrong\n1\t420\t\t\t\t\nRemarks.\nAmplitude rises from o.\nCircumflex sustained vowel ; compare p. 94 ; strong by pitch and amplitude.\nBoth parts of this diphthong are nearly constant in pitch and amplitude ; compare p. 92 ; strong by length and amplitude.\nMy is followed by a brief rest in order to bring out the b distinctly. The b makes no curves in the record.\nExtremely long vowel of very low pitch with two maxima of intensity ; it might be considered as a close succession of two o' s ; compare p. 93 ; strong by length and amplitude.\nThe a begins at a very low pitch 7.7 and rises steadily to 5\u2022 3> which is maintained throughout the \u00bb. The form of the curve for a differs from that for \u00bb, yet the change is so gradual that it is impossible to assign any dividing line.\nStraight line in the record.\nThis extra vowel arises from the attempt at extra distinctness in speaking.\nStrong by length and pitch.\nRolled r, brief.\nA single vowel of circumflex intensity ; compare p. 93 ; strong by length and amplitude.\nverse. Probably no better way of getting an idea of the nature of Greek verse could be found than that of listening to typical Japanese verse. I have also found another form of pitch-verse in a kind of poetical dictionary used by the Turks for learning Persian.\nLatin verse was essentially a time-verse, the chief distinction among the syllables being that of length in addition to the change in speech-sounds.\nEnglish verse is usually considered to be an intensity-verse, or a verse of loud and soft syllables. The four tables show quite evidently that English verse is also a pitch-verse and a time-verse.\nIt may be said that in all probability changes of length and intensity","page":98},{"file":"p0099.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\n99\nLine 4 : / killed Cock Robin.\nSound.\tI Duration in thousandths of a second.\tPitch (period in || thousandths of 1 a second).\tIntensity (maximum ampli-1 tude in mm.).\nai\t334\t12-4\t0.6\nk\t125\t\t\n\u00bb' )\t\t\t\n\t324\t5-6\t0.2\nl J\t\t\t\nd\t33\t\t\n*\t81\t4-9\t0.2\nk\t133\t\t\n\u00e2\t147\t7 0-5-3\t0-3\n*\t76\t\t\nk\t46\t\t\nr\t60\t3-9\t0.6'\n\u00e0\t103\t3 9\t0.5.\nb\t53\t4-2\t0.1\ni\t82\t5-6\t0.4 j\nn\t74\t8.8\t0.11\n7\t955\t\t\nstrong\nweak\nweak\nstrong\nweak\nRemarks.\nFull analysis on p. 22 ; strong by length, pitch of i and amplitude.\nStraight line in the record.\nIt is impossible to assign any definite point as the limit between these two sounds ; weak, low i in contrast to the i in the first line above.\nThis d is distinctly heard ; compare d in first line above.\nAdditional vowel due to the extra distinctness in speaking the d; it arises from the explosive opening of the mouth ; the pronunciation of the word killed is different from that in the first line chiefly in the great diff\u00e9rence in pitch and in the greater distinctness of the d.\nStraight line in the record\nPitch rises from beginning to end.\nSee the same word in the first line above.\nStraight line in the record.\nThe r is more vowel-like than the corresponding r in the first line ; the strong roll is not heard; the curve of ro very much resembles in period and amplitude the curve of an ai in thy (Fig. 61) turned backward ; the period of the cord tone is practically constant ; the resonance tone of the mouth undergoes a continuous change ; any assignment of a limit between the two sounds must be somewhat arbitrary ; the sound ro is strong by length, pitch and amplitude.\nThe b cuts off suddenly the sound of 0.\nThe i is heard, but not so distinctly as in the first line above.\nWeak, low, diminuendo.\nwent along with the changes of pitch in Greek verse but that they were of minor importance. Perhaps, also, changes of pitch and intensity likewise accompanied the long and short syllables in Latin verse. Bui I do not think that for English verse we can fully accept the analogous statement that, although the changes in pitch and length may be present,","page":99},{"file":"p0100.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"IOO\nE. IV. Scripture,\nthey are quite subordinate to the changes in intensity. It would, I believe, be more nearly correct to say that English verse is composed of strong and weak, or emphatic and unemphatic syllables and that strength can be produced by length, pitch or intensity.\nThe usual scansion of this stanza in strong and weak syllables would give\nThe three elements : length, pitch and intensity, are all used to produce strength. Thus the forcible vowel \u00fc in Line i is long and moderately high and loud.\nThe strength of a syllable may be kept the same by increasing one of the factors as another one decreases. The vowel o of Robin in Line i is strong on account of its length and intensity, although its pitch is low. A syllable necessarily short may be made as strong as a longer one by making it louder or higher ; or a syllable necessarily of small intensity may be strengthened by lengthening it or raising its pitch. Thus, the short i of With in Line 3 is strong on account of its high pitch and large amplitude ; and the weak ce of arrow in Line 3 is strong on account of its high pitch and its length. This might be called the principle of substitution.\nAn increase in the loudness, length or pitch of a syllable renders it stronger\u2014other things being equal. Using the symbol / to indicate dependence we may put m\u2014f(x,y,z), where m is the measure of strength and x, y and z are the measures of intensity, length and pitch respectively. This might be called the fundamental principle of strc?igth.\nThe study of this and other specimens of verse has made it quite clear that the usual concept of the nature of a poetical foot is erroneous in at least one respect. Lines in verse are generally distinct units, separated by pauses and having definite limits. A single line, however, is not made up of smaller units that can be marked off from each other. It would be.quite erroneous to divide the first stanza of Cock Robin into feet as follow.\nWho killed|Cock Rob|in ?\nI, said the|sparrow.\nWith my bow|and ar|ro\\v\n>\tI killed|Cock Rob|in.\nNo such divisions occur in the actually spoken sounds and no dividing points can be assigned in the tracing.","page":100},{"file":"p0101.txt","language":"en","ocr_en":"Researches in experimental phonetics.\nioi\nThe correct concept of the English poetical line seems to be that of a certain quantity of speech-sound distributed so as to produce an effect equivalent to that of a certain number of points of emphasis at definite intervals. The proper scansion of the above stanza would be :\nWho killed Cock Robin ?\nI, said the sparrow,\nWith my bow and arrow I killed Cock Robin.\nThe location of a point of emphasis is determined by the strength of the neighboring sounds. It is like the centroid of a system of forces or the center of gravity of a body in being the point at which we can consider all the forces to be concentrated and yet have the same effect. The point of emphasis may lie even in some weak sound or in a mute consonant if the distribution of the neighboring sounds produces an effect equivalent to a strong sound occurring at that point. Thus the first point of emphasis in the third line lies somewhere in the group of sounds mybow, probably between y and o.\nWith this view of the nature of English verse all the stanzas of Cock Robin can be readily and naturally scanned as composed of two-beat or two-point lines.\nIt is not denied that much English verse shows the influence of quantitative classical models, but such an influence is evidently not present in Cock Robin.\nThanks are due to Prof. Hanns Oertel who has very kindly read most of the proof of this article ; he has enriched it by various suggestions particularly in regard to the h discussed on p. 60.","page":101}],"identifier":"lit28769","issued":"1899","language":"en","pages":"1-101","startpages":"1","title":"Researches in experimental phonetics","type":"Journal Article","volume":"7"},"revision":0,"updated":"2022-01-31T15:22:38.327449+00:00"}